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REV.  GEORGE  A.  SHAW. 


Madagascar  #  France 


WITH  SOME  ACCOUNT  OF 

THE  ISLAND,  ITS  PEOPLE,  ITS  RESOURCES 
AND  DEVELOPMENT. 


GEORGE  A.  SHAW,  F.  Z.  S., 

LONDON  MISSION,  TAMATAVE. 


WITH  A  MAP,  AND  MANY  ILLUSTRATIONS  FROM  ORIGINAL 
SKETCHES  AND  PHOTOGRAPHS. 


AMERICAN  TRACT  SOCIETY, 

150  NASSAU  STREET,  NEW  YORK. 


CHAP.  PAGE. 

/.  GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ISLAND   .  13 

II  MALAGASY  CIVILIZATION  29 

HZ  ORIGIN  OF  THE  MALAGASY.  .  63 

IV.  ATTEMPTS     TO    COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR 

FROM  1643  TO  1814  80 


V.  THE  RECENT  FRENCH  CLAIMS  .      .      .  .117 
VI.  THE  EMBASSY  TO  EUROPE  ...  137 

VII.  THE  BEGINNING  OF  HOSTILITIES  .  .  .171 
VIII  THE  FRENCH  ULTIMATUM  .  1S7 

IX.  EFFECT  OF  THE  ULTIMATUM  IN  ANTANA- 


NARIVO  202 

X.  BOMBARDMENT  OF  TAMA  TAVE    .      .      .  220 

XI.  ACCESSION  OF  RANAVALONA  III.     .      .  ,255 

XII.  PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE  OF 

THE  MALAGASY   2S9 

XIII.  THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR      .       .       .  344 

XIV.  THE  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR   .      .      .      .  396 

XV.  METEOROLOGY  433 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


MAP  OF  MADAGASCAR  Front. 

PORTRAIT  OF  MR.  SHAW  Frontispiece. 

TAMA  TAVE  9 

SAKALA  VA  MEN  AND  BOATS  19 

PALANQUINS  31 

GROUP  OF  HOVAS  53 

MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS  61 

INLAND  VILLAGE  rjj 

MADAGASCAR  EMBASSY  iJ9 

ROYAL  STREET,  TAMATAVE  175 

RAINANDRIAMAMPANDRY  1S9 

ANTANANARIVO  203 

QUEENS  PALACE  257 

ROYAL  TOMBS,  AMBOHIMANGA  265 

RANAVALONA  III.  274 

MALAGASY  CRIMINAL  303 

TOMBS  OF  EARLY  MISSIONARIES  ...  309 

AMBA  TONAKANGA  CHURCH  317 

CHURCH  OF  THE  OLD  STYLE  323 

TRA  VELLERS'  TREE  399 

PITCHER  PLANT  425 


PREFACE. 


For  the  past  two  years  the  English  popular 
feeling  has  been  more  or  less  aroused  by  the 
accounts  which  have  from  time  to  time  been 
brought  to  this  country  relative  to  French  aggres- 
sion in  the  island  of  Madagascar.  A  great  deal 
of  indignation  was  expressed  on  the  receipt  of 
the  first  news  of  the  high-handed  action  of  the 
civilized  nation  towards  the  comparatively  weak, 
but  singularly  interesting  people;  and  that  feel- 
ing, though  dormant,  strongly  tinges  the  deep 
sense  of  sorrow  and  pity  felt  in  this  country  for 
those  who  a  few  years  ago  were  heathen  barba- 
rians, but  who  have  so  quickly  struggled  through 
the  dense  cloud  of  superstition  oppressing  them 
into  the  true  light  of  Christian  civilization. 
These  mixed  feelings  are  flavored  with  no  incon- 
siderable amount  of  surprise  and  astonishment, 
both  at  the  lame  and  paltry  claims  put  forward 
by  France  to  justify  the  present  course  of  action, 
and  at  the  apparent  indifference  of  the  French 
people  to  comprehend  them. 

Meanwhile  it  is  found,  on  inquiry,  that  really 


6 


PREFACE. 


nothing  has  been  done  during  these  two  years  to 
ultimately  settle  the  question.  Mission  work  has 
been  upset,  trade  has  been  stopped  or  hindered, 
neutral  merchants  have  been  ruined,  property 
has  been  destroyed,  money  squandered,  and  lives 
lost,  and  yet  no  advance  has  been  made  towards 
peace.  The  conduct  of  the  Malagasy,  however, 
must  have  excited  the  strongest  admiration  in 
the  minds  of  all  who  have  followed  the  history  of 
recent  events.  They  have  shown  themselves  de- 
termined patriots,  clear-headed  politicians,  good 
soldiers,  and  conscientious  Christians.  In  their 
dossed  determination  to  resist  to  the  last  and 
their  indifference  to  the  hardships  of  the  cam- 
paign, in  their  watchfulness  in  the  trenches  and 
bravery  in  meeting  death,  they  have  called  forth 
the  encomium  even  of  those  who  have  seen 
active  service  in  other  parts  of  the  world;  while 
their  practical  Christianity  and  faithfulness  under 
the  trying  dispensation  of  Providence  have  com- 
pletely silenced  those  detractors  who  prophesied 
that  at  the  first  breath  of  calamity  the  Malagasy 
Christians  would  revert  to  their  ancient  idolatry 
and  superstition. 

At  the  same  time  the  Government  has  retained 
its  hold  on  all  the  tribes,  making  its  arm  felt  in 
quelling  rebellion  and  enforcing  the  laws  of  the 
country  in  the  extreme  points  of  its  dominion. 


PREFACE. 


7 


Reports  from  the  scene  of  action  are,  as  might 
be  expected,  very  contradictory.  On  the  one 
side  we  hear  of  French  reconnaissances,  in  which 
the  enemy  have  been  routed  with  great  loss,  with 
only  a  trifling  casualty  on  the  part  of  the  inva- 
ders; while  from  the  other  camp  we  hear  that 
again  and  again  the  attacking  party  has  been 
repulsed  with  heavy  losses,  the  injury  suffered  by 
the  Malagasy  being  insignificant. 

While  there  has  apparently  been  no  successful 
endeavor  made  to  present  the  facts  to  the  French 
*  people,  their  ears  have  been  continually  regaled 
with  reminders  of  the  "ancient  rights  of  France 
in  Madagascar."  What  these  " rights"  were  was 
never  very  definitely  stated  till  July  last,  when, 
in  a  report  of  the  Committee  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  on  the  bill  for  granting  extraordinary 
expenses  connected  with  the  expedition  to  Mad- 
agascar, it  was  asserted,  on  page  2,  that  "since 
1642,  the  date  at  which  Richelieu  granted  to  the 
naval  captain  Rigault  the  concession  for  ten 
years  of  the  island  of  Madagascar  and  the  adja- 
cent islands,  France  has  never  ceased  to  claim 
possession  of  Madagascar,  and  that  the  claim  has 
never  been  disputed  by  any  European  power." 

An  endeavor  is  made  in  the  following  pages 
not  only  to  set  forth  a  true  historical  sketch  of 
the  connection  of  France  with  Madagascar  from 


8 


PREFACE. 


the  earliest  times  to  the  present,  by  which  it  will 
be  seen  how  little  claim  the  former  has  to  the 
island  or  to  the  sympathies  of  its  inhabitants,  but 
also  to  answer  various  questions  which  are  arising 
in  the  minds  of  many  with  regard  to  the  country, 
its  products  and  adaptability  for  foreign  enter- 
prise and  commerce;  and  its  people,  their  char- 
acter, habits,  employments,  and  advance  in  civil- 
ization and  Christianity. 

My  connection,  as  a  missionary  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society,  with  Madagascar,  for  nearly 
fourteen  years,  has  enabled  me  to  see  and  fully 
appreciate  the  huge  leaps  which  have  been  made 
by  these  people  in  the  scale  of  Christian  civiliza- 
tion, and  I  have  endeavored  to  give  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages  an  impartial  statement.  If  an 
undue  leaning  towards  the  Malagasy  does  occa- 
sionally exhibit  itself,  it  must  be  placed  to  the 
account  of  the  love  which  one  is  sure  to  acquire 
for  those  for  whom  one  has  been  called  upon  to 
labor,  and  especially  if  that  labor  has  not  been 
all  pleasant. 


MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ISLAND. 

The  East  Coast  Tribe.  The  Betsimisaraka.  Intermixture  of 
Tribes.  Lagoons,  advantage  for  inter-communication.  No 
River  Mouths.  Harbors.  Tamatave.  Andovoranto.  Ivon- 
drona.  Harbors  north  of  Tamatave.  Rivers  as  a  means  of 
Internal  Communication.  Canoes  for  the  River  Navigation, 
for  Sea-going  Purposes.  The  Towns.  Fort  at  Tamatave. 
The  Hova  Soldiers'  Quarters.  Houses.  Fires.  No  Public 
Works.  The  Soil.  The  Land  Question  as  affecting  the  For- 
eign Capitalist. 

Madagascar,  one  of  the  largest  islands  in 
the  world,  being  about  970  miles  long  by  300 
wide,  consists  physically  of  three  zones.  Around 
the  coast  is  a  low-lying,  comparatively  flat  tract, 
extending  some  30  or  40  miles  inland  on  the  east, 
but  somewhat  more  extensive  on  the  south  and 
west.  Inland  of  this  is  a  zone  of  forest  land,  cov- 
ering the  mountainous  sides  of  the  central  table- 
land, and  varying  in  width  from  a  few  miles  on 
the  west  to  40  or  50  miles  in  its  broadest  part  on 
the  northeast.    This  belt  is  also  not  quite  contin- 


12 


MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


uous  on  the  western  side  of  the  island,  but  is 
broken  into  patches  with  open  country  between. 

Above  and  beyond  the  forest  region  is  a  moun- 
tainous plateau  at  a  height  of  3,000  or  4,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  bearing  upon  its  sur- 
face mountains  rising  4,000  or  5,000  feet  higher, 
formed  into  chains  running  from  north  to  south 
and  composed  chiefly  of  granite,  gneiss,  and  quartz 
imbedded  in  a  hard  red  soil  very  much  resembling 
clay.  Generally  speaking,  the  appearance  of  this 
table-land  is  desolate;  few  trees  are  seen,  and  ex- 
cept round  the  centres  of  population  where  there 
is  cultivation,  and  in  the  kloofs  between  the 
mountains,  the  country  is  bare  or  only  covered 
with  a  rough  brown  grass.  "There  is,  however, 
an  element  of  grandeur  in  the  landscape,  from 
the  great  extent  of  country  visible  from  many 
points  in  the  clear  pure  atmosphere,  which  ren- 
ders very  distant  objects  wonderfully  sharp  and 
distinct."* 

Politically,  there  are  22  tribes  and  provincial 
divisions  in  the  island,  each  formerly  governed  by 
its  own  chiefs,  but  now,  in  a  greater  or  lesser  de- 
gree, acknowledging  the  supremacy  of  the  Hovas.f 

With  perhaps  the  exception  of  the  Sakalava 
on  the  west  coast  of  Madagascar,  the  Betsimisara- 

*  "  Great  African  Island,"  by  the  Rev.  J.  Sibree,  p.  23. 
f  The  tribe  living  in  the  central  province  of  the  island,  called 
Imerina,  in  which  is  the  capital  Antananarivo. 


GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ISLAND.  13 

ka  occupy  the  largest  extent  of  the  coast  line  of 
this  great  island.  On  the  eastern  side,  from  about 
the  14th  to  the  20th  degree  of  south  latitude,  the 
entire  seaboard  was  under  the  authority  of  this 
tribe  before  the  time  of  their  conquest  by  the 
Hovas.  The  western  boundary  is  not  so  easily 
determined,  and  in  the  complete  absence  of  all 
written  history,  tradition  is  of  little  value,  espe- 
cially in  marking  the  boundary  between  tribes  so 
nearly  related,  and  at  the  same  time  subdivided 
into  so  many  chieftaincies,  as  the  Betsimisaraka, 
the  Tanala,  Taimoro,  etc.  Besides  this,  portions 
of  one  tribe  have  insinuated  themselves  into  the 
territory  of  their  neighbors,  and  have  been  al- 
lowed to  select  an  unoccupied  spot  and  build  a 
town  or  village  quite  in  the  heart  of  another 
province.  Such  is  Tetezamalama,  about  five 
miles  west  of  Tamatave,  the  people  of  which  be- 
long to  a  tribe  south  of  the  Betsimisaraka  and  a 
hundred  miles  distant  from  the  town.  Ivatoman- 
dry,  a  port  in  the  south,  is  inhabited  by  people 
from  two  tribes.  I  think,  however,  it  is  correct 
to  say  that,  roughly  speaking,  the  western  boun- 
dary of  the  Betsimisaraka  is  the  forest  on  the 
slopes  of  the  hill  rising  to  the  central  table-land 
of  the  island.  Admitting  this  to  be  so,  the  Bet- 
simisaraka country  would  have  a  length  of  360 
and  an  average  breadth  of  25  or  30  miles. 


14  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

Nearly  the  whole  of  this  territory  is  a  flat, 
well- watered,  and  highly-fertile  country,  the  lux- 
uriant highly-tropical  vegatation  offering  a  stri- 
king contrast  to  the  more  sterile  and  rocky  pla- 
teau of  the  central  provinces.  The  most  re- 
markable physical  feature  of  the  district  is  the 
succession  of  large  fresh-water  lagoons,  which 
extend  for  one  or  two  hundred  miles  along  the 
coast,  separated  from  the  sea  in  some  instances 
by  a  very  narrow  strip  of  sand.  Here  and  there 
the  sand  is  broken  away  towards  the  sea,  forming 
an  outlet  for  the  rivers  which  supply  these  la- 
goons, but  too  shallow  to  be  of  any  commercial 
utility.  Generally  speaking,  but  a  small  tract  of 
land  separates  one  lagoon  from  the  next,  and  I 
imagine  that  a  comparatively  trifling  outlay,  with 
some  engineering  skill,  would  suffice  to  connect 
these  lakes  by  navigable  canals.  Thus  would  be 
formed  a  continuous,  safe,  and  convenient  means 
of  communication  between  some  of  the  chief  ports 
on  the  east  coast,  which  are  now  with  difficulty 
reached  from  the  sea,  and  the  transport  between 
which  overland  is  expensive,  irregular,  and  unre- 
liable. The  lakes  on  the  whole  are  fairly  deep, 
and  barges  of  light  draught  could  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year  pass  from  end  to  end  in  perfect  safety, 
although  the  sea  at  the  same  time  might  be  rough 
and  even  impracticable  for  the  ordinary  coasting 


GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OE  THE  ISLAND.  15 

schooners.  If  this  work  is  ever  accomplished,  it 
will  be  done  by  foreign  enterprise  and  money,  for 
it  is  not  the  policy  of  the  native  Government  to 
make  the  internal  communications  of  the  island 
any  better  for  the  foreign  merchant. 

Although  the  district  is  well  watered  by  broad, 
fine-looking  rivers,  not  one  of  them  is  navigable 
from  the  sea.  Every  opening  on  the  east  coast, 
south  of  but  not  including  Tamatave,  is  blocked 
with  sand,  which  forms  an  impassable  barrier  for 
any  vessels  except  whale-boats,  decked  and  used 
as  lighters,  and  built  sufficiently  strong  to  be  un- 
injured by  the  inevitable  bumping  on  the  bar 
which  they  are  sure  to  experience. 

Tamatave  harbor  is  protected  from  this  great 
drawback  by  a  long  reef  which  joins  the  shore  on 
the  south  and  stretches  away  towards  the  north 
for  three  or  four  miles,  having  a  deep  though 
narrow  opening  in  the  centre,  opposite  to  which 
the  town  is  built.  Some  efforts  have  been  made 
to  cut  an  entrance  through  the  bar  at  Andovoran- 
to,  by  means  of  which  small  craft  might  enter 
the  river  and  find  good  and  safe  anchorage;  but 
up  to  the  present  time  no  great  progress  has  been 
made.  Could  a  permanent  entrance  of  sufficient 
depth  be  formed  and  kept  clear,  a  first-class  har- 
bor would  be  found  inside,  and  merchandise 
could  be  transported  by  boats  or  canoes  up  the 


l6  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

river,  as  far  as  Maromby,  thus  saving  nearly  one- 
third  of  the  distance  to  the  capital. 

Very  much  the  same  may  be  said  for  the  bar 
and  river  of  Ivondrona,  on  the  banks  of  which 
are  two  or  three  sugar-making  establishments — 
the  largest  in  the  island — the  great  desideratum 
of  these  being  an  easy  and  cheap  transport  from 
Ivondrona  to  Tamatave  or  Mauritius.  The  sugar 
from  these  mills  can  be  carried  by  water  at  very 
little  expense  to  Ivondrona,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river;  but  there  all  water  communication  ceases, 
from  the  causes  already  mentioned;  and  the  bags 
of  sugar  have  to  be  carried  on  men's  shoulders,  a 
process  both  expensive  and  slow.  A  few  bullock 
carts  are  used,  but  the  want  of  any  pretence  of  a 
road  renders  this  course  only  a  slight  improve- 
ment upon  the  system  of  bearers. 

To  the  north  of  Tamatave  are  two  or  three 
harbors  not  suffering  from  the  drawback  men- 
tioned, but  they  are  only  small;  and  the  trade  has 
been  diverted  to  Tamatave  for  all  vessels  of  any 
considerable  size.  Hence  the  towns  situated  near 
are  but  insignificant  commercially.  Among  these 
are  Fenoarivo  and  Mahambo,  both  of  which  have 
harbors  that  are  formed  by  projecting  rocks,  but 
are  intricate  and  in  no  small  measure  dangerous. 
It  is  said,  however,  that  soon  after  the  Hova  con- 
quest the  latter  town  surpassed  Tamatave  in  the 


GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ISLAND.   I J 

number  of  shipping  that  visited  it.  Probably 
these  two  ports  being  the  nearest  to  the  Sihanaka 
country  north  of  the  capital  on  the  table-land, 
and  which  has  always  been  the  great  source  of 
the  supply  of  bullocks  to  this  coast,  increased 
their  importance,  even  if  it  is  not  true  to  say  it 
was  the  cause  of  their  existence  as  ports. 

Schooners  anchor  off  Antsiraka  (Point  Laree), 
the  port  for  Isoanerana  (Ivongo),  as  under  the  lee 
of  the  French  Island  of  St.  Mary  a  considerable 
shelter  is  found  from  the  prevailing  south-east 
winds.  But  this  is  a  port  of  no  great  importance. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  Mananara  (Manahar), 
the  port  for  Isoavinarivo,  where  schooners  can 
anchor  under  cover  of  the  point.  In  both  these 
places  the  cargo  has  to  be  landed  through  the 
surf,  which  fortunately  is  not  very  great  in  either 
place. 

At  Maroantsetra  vessels  of  large  sise  can  an- 
chor, but  the  harbor  is  rendered  insecure  from  the 
heavy  squalls  which  so  frequently  visit  it.  These 
are  caused  doubtless  by  the  height  of  the  land  on 
the  eastern  side,  down  the  slopes  of  which  the 
wind  rushes  with  considerable  violence,  even  in 
the  winter  months,  when  in  other  parts  along  the 
coast  there  is  a  steady  south-east  trade- wind. 

At  Ngontsy  and  Sambava  the  same  obstacles 
are  found  as  render  the  more  southern  ports  places 

Madagascar  and  France.  2 


iS  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

of  difficulty  and  danger  for  those  engaged  in  land- 
ing and  loading  cargo,  and  the  rivers  in  the  north- 
east are  just  as  valueless  as  a  means  of  communi- 
cation with  the  sea  as  those  already  referred  to  at 
Ivondrona  and  Andovoranto. 

But  as  a  means  of  internal  communication 
the  natives  are  alive  to  the  importance  of  their 
rivers,  and  a  considerable  amount  of  traffic  daily 
passes  up  and  down  them.  Foreigners  also  have 
not  been  slow  to  appreciate  the  advantages  of 
establishing  their  plantations,  etc.,  on  the  banks 
of  the  really  fine  rivers  with  which  the  province 
abounds.  The  communication  is  carried  on  al- 
most entirely  by  canoes  formed  by  hollowing  out 
large  trees,  and  bending  them  into  convenient 
shape  by  means  of  thongs  and  stakes,  and  firing 
the  inside,  to  cause  them  to  retain  the  shape  thus 
temporarily  given.  No  outrigger  is  used,  and  no 
keel  is  attached,  yet  notwithstanding  the  crazy 
nature  of  these  craft  and  their  unsteadiness  on  the 
water,  very  few  accidents  occur  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  persons  daily  employing  them. 
Several  seats,  according  to  the  length  of  the  canoe, 
are  placed  across  at  intervals,  on  which  the  voy- 
agers sit  as  they  propel  the  canoe  forward  by 
means  of  paddles  shaped  like  a  spade,  a  longer 
one  of  the  same  shape  being  used  to  steer  with. 
In  crossing  the  mouths  of  some  of  the  larger  rivers 


SAKALAVA  PEOPLE  AND  BOAT. 


GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OE  THE  ISLAND.  21 

oars  are  used,  but  they  are  not  common.  The 
canoes  for  use  in  the  harbors  and  in  Antongil 
Bay  are  sometimes  fitted  with  a  false  keel,  and  the 
sides  are  supplemented  by  one  or  two  planks, 
nailed  to  ribs  fixed  inside  the  hollowed  tree,  thus 
rendering  them  more  serviceable  and  safe  on  the 
rougher  water  of  the  sea.  In  these  oars  are  used, 
with  a  long  steering  oar.  Sails,  also,  are  often 
employed,  under  which,  considering  the  rough- 
and-ready  style  of  making  the  hull,  they  behave 
very  well. 

On  the  northwest  coast  the  Sakalavas,  etc., 
put  an  outrigger  on  their  canoes,  and  are  far  bet- 
ter navigators  than  those  on  the  east  coast.  In 
the  southeast  the  people  build  boats  by  tying  the 
planks  together,  using  the  thwarts  as  ribs,  and 
filling  the  holes  made  for  the  entrance  of  the 
thongs  with  wooden  pegs.  In  Antongil  Bay  I 
found  a  native  engaged  in  boat-building.  With 
several  men  who  had  been  taught  by  a  foreigner 
he  had  already  built  several  schooners  for  the 
coasting  trade,  and  at  the  time  of  my  visit  had 
another  in  process  of  construction.  These  were 
made  of  native  wood  cut  in  the  adjacent  forest, 
and  appeared  to  be  good  and  really  well-built  ves- 
sels. 

Most  of  the  towns  occupied  by  the  Hovas  are 
more  or  less  fortified,  and,  as  far  as  the  character 


22  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


of  the  ground  will  allow,  are  built  upon  the  most 
elevated  spots.  These  have  doubtless  been  cho- 
sen not  only  because  they  are  more  easily  defend- 
ed, but  because,  from  their  height  above  the 
marshes,  they  are  less  subject  to  malaria,  from 
which  arises  the  fever  that  proves  so  deadly  to  the 
Hovas  who  have  lived  only  in  the  more  temper- 
ate climate  of  the  central  plateau.  In  some  parts 
along  the  coast,  however,  this  selection  has  proved, 
from  the  nature  of  the  ground,  altogether  impos- 
sible; while  in  others  the  Hova  town  and  fortress 
are  some  miles  from  the  port  and  custom-house, 
which  presumably  they  were  destined  to  defend. 

Their  defences  consist  of  rough  and  very  infe- 
rior imitations  of  the  fort  at  Tamatave,  which,  if 
properly  mounted  and  garrisoned,  would  prove  a 
powerful  defence.  It  consists  of  a  circular  wall 
of  coral  and  lime  about  1 8  or  20  feet  thick  at  the 
base.  The  upper  part  is  hollow,  forming  a  gal- 
lery throughout  its  entire  length,  with  here  and 
there  embrasures  for  cannon.  Stone  steps  on  the 
inner  side  lead  downward  to  the  interior  court- 
yard and  upward  to  the  top  of  the  wall,  which  is 
protected  on  the  outer  side  by  a  parapet  breast 
high.  The  wall,  which  is  about  20  feet  high, 
incloses  a  courtyard  50  or  60  yards  in  diameter. 
This  is  entered  by  two  crooked  entrances,  closed 
by  three  wooden  doors  in  each.    In  the  central 


GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ISLAND.  23 


inclosure  stand  the  magazine  and  residences  of 
the  governor  and  his  family.  Outside  the  stone 
wall  is  an  earthwork  15  feet  in  height,  and  sep- 
arated by  about  10  feet  from  the  stone  wall,  thus 
forming  a  kind  of  fosse  between.  Large  gate- 
ways, corresponding  to  the  outer  gateways  in  the 
stone  wall,  afford  the  means  of  entrance  and  exit. 
The  fort  and  earthwork  were  both  defended  by 
cannon  mounted  on  wooden  carriages  or  on  wood- 
en pivots.  But  not  only  were  the  cannon  old  and 
probably  useless,  but  the  soldiers  who  were  ex- 
pected to  defend  the  place  never  had  any  more 
practice  than  was  obtained  from  the  firing  of  sa- 
lutes. Even  then  it  was  no  uncommon  occurrence 
for  the  pieces  to  rebound  out  of  their  high  stands, 
requiring  the  labor  of  a  number  of  men  to  replace 
them  before  the  salute  could  be  continued. 

Other  forts  along  the  coast  were  much  worse 
off  than  this,  and  in  one  I  have  even  seen  a  wood- 
en cannon  mounted  in  all  solemnity  in  company 
with  its  almost  equally  useless  companions,  whose 
serious  work  was  completed  70  or  80  years  ago. 
Other  so-called  forts  consist  of  stockades  in  imita- 
tion of  that  around  the  palace  in  Antananarivo, 
consisting  of  spiked  poles  and  defended  by  at  the 
most  one  or  two  field  guns.  Of  this  character  are 
the  Hova  stations  at  Maroantsetra,  Ivongo,  Maha- 
noro,  Ivatomandry,  and  Mananjara;  while  at  Fe- 


24  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

noarivo  and  Mahambo  attempts  have  been  made 
to  imitate  that  at  Tamatave,  which  is  said  to  have 
been  built  by  Portuguese. 

Soldiers  who  have  been  drafted  for  the  defence 
of  these  places  are  Hovas,  whose  duty  has  been 
considered  their  share  of  the  enforced  Government 
service  to  which  all  the  Malagasy  are  subject. 
Their  houses  are  inclosed  within  a  stockade  simi- 
lar to  that  described  above,  and  none  but  soldiers 
are  allowed  to  build  or  live  within  that  inclosure: 
so  that  every  Hova  town  on  the  coast  is  divided 
into  three  parts — the  fort,  or  rova,  in  which  none 
but  the  governor  and  his  family  live,  the  soldiers* 
division,  near  to  or  surrounding  the  rova,  and  the 
civilians'  town  on  the  outskirts. 

The  best  of  the  houses  are  built  of  wood,  but 
the  majority  of  bamboo  split  and  plaited,  or  of 
rushes  dried  and  kept  in  their  places  by  means  of 
two  or  three  long  pieces  of  split  bamboo  driven 
through  each.  Nearly  all  are  thatched  with  the 
leaves  of  the  travellers'  tree.  In  fact,  this  tree  in 
some  places  supplies  all  that  is  necessary  for  the 
house-building  except  a  few  poles  made  of  the 
midrib  of  the  rofia  palm  leaves.  A  fireplace  is 
obtained  by  filling  a  case  of  wood  with  sand,  on 
which  the  trivets  are  placed  for  supporting  the 
cooking  pots.  With  such  flimsy  materials  it  is 
matter  for  surprise  that  so  few  fires  occur  in  Mala- 


GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ISLAND.  25 

gasy  towns  on  the  coast;  but  when  one  does  break 
out  it  is  seldom  extinguished  until  the  whole  town 
is  reduced  to  ruins,  each  man  only  caring  to  se- 
cure his  few  domestic  utensils  and  as  much  wood 
from  the  burning  mass  as  he  can  successfully  res- 
cue. It  is  only  in  towns  where  a  sufficiently 
strong  European  community  exists  that  any  houses 
are  pulled  down  for  the  purpose  of  saving  those 
beyond  them. 

In  fact,  the  want  of  public  spirit,  the  working 
for  the  public  good,  has  been  one  of  the  obstacles 
to  advancement  in  Madagascar;  very  little  is  done 
simply  because  it  may  benefit  the  community  at 
large.  Hence  one  finds  no  public  works  in  the 
country,  no  roads  or  bridges,  no  drainage  or  sys- 
tem of  irrigation ;  each  man  is  expected  to  make 
what  canals  are  necessary  for  his  own  plantations. 
No  accommodation  is  found  for  travellers  on  the 
roads,  although  it  has  been  represented  that  houses 
(lapd)  are  built  in  the  villages  between  Tamatave 
and  the  capital  for  this  purpose.  But  closer  in- 
quiry would  have  shown  that  no  such  public  spirit 
actuated  the  authorities  who  caused  their  con- 
struction, for  they  have  been  built  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  giving  shelter  to  the  goods  of  the  Queen 
and  Prime  Minister  while  being  carried  up  from 
the  port  to  the  capital.  They  are  certainly  often 
very  useful  to  travellers,  but  this  was  not  taken 


26 


MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE). 


into  consideration  in  the  least  as  a  reason  for  their 
construction. 

The  soil  of  the  district  consists  of  a  sandy  belt 
three  or  four  miles  in  breadth,  bordering  upon  the 
sea,  and  beyond  this  an  alluvial  deposit  most  pro- 
ductive, as  is  proved  by  the  rich  and  luxuriant 
vegetation.  The  capabilities  of  the  country  be- 
tween the  lagoons  and  the  forest  have  not  been 
sufficiently  tested  to  warrant  any  general  state- 
ment. But,  judging  by  the  rapid  growth  of  cer- 
tain kinds  of  produce,  one  is  compelled  to  ac- 
knowledge the  great  productiveness  of  the  soil 
and  climate.  All  vegetation  requiring  a  rich 
mould  and  a  damp,  hot  atmosphere  luxuriates  in 
the  Betsimisaraka  country;  but  only  a  few  prod- 
ucts have  received  much  attention  from  foreign- 
ers, probably  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining 
land  on  sufficiently  long  leases  to  warrant  the  out- 
lay required  when  first  establishing  a  plantation. 
Now  that  difficulty  is  to  a  great  extent,  if  not  en- 
tirely, removed,  as  is  shown  in  Chapter  IV. ;  and 
the  subject  of  the  capability  of  the  country  for 
rendering  a  good  return  for  the  labor  of  the  plant- 
er will  become  one  of  increasing  interest  as  soon 
as  the  political  horizon  is  clear.  Whichever  way 
events  shape  themselves,  there  is  little  doubt  that 
the  country  will  be  opened  up  much  more  rapidly 
than  in  the  past.    If  the  French  secure  the  coast, 


GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ISLAND.  2J 

or  any  considerable  part  of  it,  they  will  in  their 
own  interests  render  every  facility  to  capitalists 
who  may  feel  disposed  to  embark  their  capital  in 
plantations  or  commerce.  And  there  have  not 
been  wanting  indications  of  the  fact  that  the  most 
intelligent  among  the  upper  classes  of  the  natives 
have  begun  to  realize  that  their  greatest  security 
is  not  to  be  obtained  by  the  closing  of  their  coun- 
try to  foreign  enterprise,  but  by  giving  every  en- 
couragement to  merchants  and  planters  to  come 
there  and  settle.  There  has  been  also  a  rumor  of 
a  projected  Government  railway  from  the  coast  to 
the  capital. 

Formerly  those  in  authority  looked  with  a  jeal- 
ous eye  upon  any  attempt  to  facilitate  communi- 
cation between  the  capital  and  the  coasts.  No 
suggestion  for  the  formation  of  a  railway  or  tram- 
way, though  several  times  made  by  English  firms, 
was  ever  entertained  by  the  native  Government. 
A  constant  dread  of  the  effects  of  the  influx  of  a 
large  number  of  foreigners  on  native  politics  has 
always  been  apparent  in  the  treaties  made  with 
other  nations;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  law 
prohibiting  mining  and  prospecting  for  gold  or 
diamonds  has  been  framed  from  the  same  cause. 
A  very  indistinct  idea  of  the  advantages  arising 
from  increased  trade  and  commerce  was  all  that 
exhibited  itself  to  the  mind  of  the  Government 


28  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

In  fact,  the  question  with  those  in  authority 
seemed  rather  to  be,  How  can  foreigners  be  de- 
terred from  the  desire  to  develop  the  resources  of 
the  country,  thus  attracting  the  attention  of  the 
rapacious?  This  accounts  in  a  great  measure  for 
the  absence  of  roads  other  than  tracks  worn  by 
the  bare  feet  of  the  porters.  It  makes  us  feel  too 
that  we  ought  not  to  have  been  surprised  at  the 
answer  sent  by  the  Prime  Minister  to  some  Creole 
traders  in  Tamatave,  who  asked  him  to  facilitate 
the  cutting  of  a  canal  between  the  lagoons  from 
thence  to  Andovoranto.  After  hearing  their  ac- 
count of  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the 
formation  of  this  cutting,  he  said  that  it  appeared 
to  be  for  their  emolument  only,  and  so  if  they 
wanted  a  canal  they  must  make  it  themselves. 


MALAGASY  CIVILIZATION. 


29 


CHAPTER  II. 

MALAGASY  CIVILIZATION. 

No  Roads.  Mode  of  Travelling.  Bearers.  Crossing  the  Rivers. 
Resting-places  for  Traveller  and  Bearers.  Coinage.  Barter. 
The  Food  Supply.  Native  Beverages.  The  Water  Supply. 
Manufactures.  Spinning,  Iron  Smelting,  Forging,  and  Cast- 
ing. Straw-plaiting.  Native  Pottery.  Jewelry  of  Gold  and 
Silver.  Cabinet-making.  Carving  Introduced  among  the 
Hovas,  but  Indigenous  in  other  Tribes.  Musical  Instruments. 
Bamboo  Drums.  Pieces  of  Iron  as  Musical  Instruments. 
Skin  Drums.  Fifes  or  Flutes.  Lyres.  The  Valiha.  Gov- 
ernment Bands. 

As  there  are  no  roads  or  railways,  the  traveller 
must  content  himself  with  the  only  kind  of  na- 
tive conveyance  found  in  the  country — the  palan- 
quin. But  do  not  imagine  by  the  name  that  any- 
thing like  the  luxurious  arrangement  used  in 
India  will  be  forthcoming  for  your  comfort  and 
convenience.  A  much  rougher  apparatus,  and 
one  better  suited  to  the  exigencies  of  the  uneven 
and  broken  country,  consisting  of  a  couple  of 
poles  kept  in  position  by  two  iron  rods,  and  sup- 
porting a  leathern  seat  a  few  inches  below  the 
level  of  the  poles,  must  suffice  for  the  most  fastid- 
ious traveller  in  Madagascar. 

Having  given  our  cook  notice  the  previous 
day  that  we  intend  to  start  on  a  few  days'  journey 


30  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

in  the  morning,  he  pnts  together  into  native  bas- 
kets such  utensils  as  he  will  require  for  cooking, 
and  a  stock  of  provisions  which  cannot  be  pur- 
chased from  the  natives  in  the  villages  through 
which  we  pass.  A  stretcher  and  bedding  are 
wrapped  in  waterproof  canvas,  some  clothes, 
books,  and  medicines  are  stowed  away  in  small 
tin  boxes,  and  our  preparations  are  complete. 
Early  on  the  morning  of  our  proposed  departure 
we  shall  find  our  yard  filled  with  men,  all  appar- 
ently most  eager  to  carry  our  baggage  or  our- 
selves; and  as  we  have  taken  the  precaution  to 
tell  our  cook  the  agreement  we  propose  making 
with  them  for  the  journey,  we  might  be  pardoned 
the  delusion  of  believing  that  all  was  settled  and 
a  start  can  be  effected  as  soon  as  we  are  ready. 

But  the  Malagasy  bearer  is  a  curious  creature, 
of  whom  you  can  never  be  certain  until  you  actu- 
ally have  him  away  with  you.  Probably  when 
all  is  tied  on  the  poles  ready  for  starting,  and 
sometimes  after  the  baggage  has  started,  the  pal- 
anquin bearers  will  ask  with  the  most  perfect 
show  of  innocence  what  wages  they  are  to  re- 
ceive, as  though  they  had  not  been  bargaining  an 
hour  or  two  the  previous  day  and  professedly  come 
to  an  arrangement.  This  generally  means  trou- 
ble, and  the  traveller  may  think  himself  favored 
if  he  is  able  to  leave  at  all  that  day.    But  if  all 


MALAGASY  CIVILIZATION.  33 

can  be  satisfactorily  adjusted,  the  palanquin  is 
shouldered,  and  at  the  average  rate  of  about  four 
miles  an  hour  the  bearers  convey  their  passenger 
along  the  sandy  trackway,  up  the  steep  mountain- 
side, through  the  rivers,  and  across  the  rice  plains, 
very  rarely  missing  their  footing  or  endangering 
their  passenger  or  his  baggage. 

The  rivers  are  crossed,  when  too  deep  to  ford, 
by  very  roughly  made  bridges,  consisting  gener- 
ally of  a  single  plank  or  log,  not  always  level,  but 
slanting  dangerously  to  one  side  or  warped  by  the 
sun  into  all  sorts  of  angles.  Without  handrail  or 
support  below  to  prevent  the  vibration  of  the  long 
plank,  the  nerves  of  the  newly-arrived  foreigner 
are  often  terribly  tried  while  making  the  passage 
from  one  bank  to  the  other  of  a  stream  roarino- 

o 

over  the  rocks  and  boulders  ten  or  twenty  feet 
below.  In  the  forest  it  is  no  uncommon  thins; 
to  find  a  bridge  made  by  simply  felling  a  large 
tree  on  one  bank  and  allowing  it  to  fall  across  the 
stream.  A  few  of  the  inconvenient  branches  are 
cut  away,  and  until  it  rots  the  native  bearer  has 
all  he  cares  for  in  the  way  of  viaduct. 

The  marshes  and  bogs  are  crossed  by  branches 
and  rushes  being  laid  on  the  surface  and  renewed 
from  time  to  time  according  to  the  wants  of  the 
individual  traveller  or  band  of  bearers.  If  a  vil- 
lage or  town  is  adjacent  to  a  marsh,  an  attempt 

Madagascar  ami  France.  <% 


34  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

is  made  at  supporting  a  rough  bridge  upon  piles 
driven  into  the  peat  and  mud  in  pairs,  and  joined 
together  by  a  cross  pole  at  right  angles  to  the 
direction  of  the  bridge.  Upon  these  the  planks 
to  form  the  pathway  are  laid.  As  the  ends  do 
not  necessarily  overlap,  it  is  no  uncommon  thing 
to  see  a  careless  bearer  tread  on  a  free  end  and  be 
aroused  to  proper  caution  by  finding  himself  in 
the  water  and  mud  below.  This  was  the  charac- 
ter of  the  bridge  at  Tetezamalama,  destroyed  by 
the  Hovas  when  they  intrenched  themselves  on 
the  west  side  of  the  wide  marsh  at  Farafatana. 

The  wider  rivers,  and  rivers  with  very  low 
banks  and  far  from  the  forest,  are  crossed  by  fer- 
ries. These  consist  generally  of  the  canoes  already 
described,  larger  or  smaller  according  to  the  dan- 
ger involved  in  crossing,  although  I  have  found 
that  at  some  difficult  and  dangerous  river-mouths 
only  very  small  and  miserable  craft  have  been 
forthcoming  to  ferry  the  traveller  and  his  bearers 
across.  At  sunset,  on  one  occasion,  my  party, 
consisting  of  myself  and  ten  natives,  reached  a 
beautiful  broad  river,  called  Onibe  or  Onive 
(north  of  Mananara),  on  the  opposite  bank  of 
wThich  is  a  small  village  where  we  proposed  to 
sleep.  After  standing  and  shouting  lustily  all 
together  for  some  time,  varying  the  monotony 
by  occasional  discharges  from  the  gun,  we  sue- 


MALAGASY  CIVILIZATION. 


35 


ceeded  in  making  the  people  on  the  other  side 
hear,  and  we  were  glad  to  see  them  coming 
across  in  a  canoe  to  paddle  us  over.  When  it 
arrived  we  found  it  to  be  only  a  small  cranky 
craft  that  would  at  best  carry  but  three;  so  we 
had  to  divide,  and  it  was  an  hour  before  the  last 
man  with  his  load  was  safely  ferried  over. 

At  unfrequented  places  I  have  had  the  pleas- 
ure of  crossing  in  a  canoe  with  the  end  broken 
off,  when  the  only  means  of  keeping  afloat  was 
for  all  to  sit  at  the  opposite  end,  so  as  to  give  suf- 
ficient tilt  to  the  canoe  to  keep  the  broken  end 
well  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  With  such 
ferry-boats  it  is  no  wonder  that  one  occasionally 
gets  an  impromptu  bath,  rendered  no  more  pleas- 
ant by  the  knowledge  that  the  rivers  swarm  with 
crocodiles. 

In  other  places  I  have  had  to  cross  on  rafts, 
called  zahitra  by  the  people.  These  are  simply  a 
collection  of  the  largest  bamboos  that  can  be  ob- 
tained in  the  neighborhood,  lashed  together  at 
one  end  to  a  pair  of  cross-pieces  of  bamboo,  thus 
forming  a  kind  of  bow,  while  the  stern  is  often  as 
broad  as  the  raft  is  long.  This  is  not  a  dry  meth- 
od of  crossing,  although  perfectly  safe,  as  the  top 
row  of  the  bamboos  is  frequently  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  river.  These  are  punted  over  by  men 
using  long  poles  of  bamboo.    Occasionally  rafts 


36  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

are  made  of  rushes,  the  zozoro,  or  papyrus,  and  this 
is  said  to  have  been  the  most  ancient  method  of 
crossing  the  rivers. 

However,  all  the  means  of  river-crossing  seem 
equally  hazardous  to  the  traveller,  and  for  the 
Malagasy  give  point  to  one  of  their  proverbs: 
"The  old  woman  crossing  the  river;  it's  1  God 
grant  what's  for  my  good,  whether  I  am  upset  or 
get  safely  over' — a  touching  picture  of  human 
helplessness. ' '  * 

Arrived  at  the  village  in  which  the  traveller 
proposes  to  rest  or  sleep,  there  is  very  little  diffi- 
culty about  accommodation.  Any  one  having  a 
house  that  appears  at  all  suitable  (and  often  there 
is  very  little  choice)  will  resign  possession  for  the 
night,  clearing  out  all  the  furniture  it  may  con- 
tain, and  seeking  a  corner  in  a  neighbor's  house, 
in  the  hope  of  a  small  piece  of  money  in  the  morn- 
ing or  when  the  stranger  resumes  his  journey. 
The  housing  of  his  bearers  need  never  trouble  the 
traveller,  as  by  a  kind  of  freemasonry,  and  per- 
haps the  hope  of  a  budget  of  news,  every  door  is 
open  to  the  entrance  of  a  bearer  and  a  hearty 
welcome  waits  him  round  the  fire.  He  uses  the 
cooking-pots,  spoons,  and  plates  of  the  owner, 
makes  himself  comfortable  for  the  night  in  a  dry 
and  warm  corner,  after  having  borrowed  a  mat  to 

*  Rev.  J.  Houlder.    "  Antananarivo  Annual,"  No.  V.  p.  62. 


MALAGASY  CIVILIZATION. 


37 


sleep  on,  but  never  dreams  of  paying  anything  for 
accommodation. 

Payments  are  made  in  Madagascar  generally 
in  money,  though  I  have  found  some  tribes  still 
using  the  primitive  method  of  barter.  The  only 
coin  at  present  recognized  as  currency  is  the  dol- 
lar either  of  France  (the  five-franc  piece  in  silver), 
of  Germany,  Holland,  Italy,  Russia,  or  Spain. 
For  smaller  payments  than  four  shillings  these 
coins  are  broken  up  and  weighed.  They  are  cut 
into  all  sizes  and  shapes,  having  no  distinctive 
value  attached  to  each  piece,  and  the  worth  is 
only  ascertained  by  careful  weighing.  For  this 
purpose  every  one  carries  a  pair  of  native  scales 
and  weights.  These  are  made  with  so  great  ex- 
actitude that  the  variation  of  the  720th  part  of  a 
dollar  can  be  detected.  Buying  is  a  tedious  pro- 
cess, rendered  more  so  by  the  fact  that  a  single 
weighing  is  seldom  accepted  by  the  native,  who 
almost  invariably  puts  the  money  first  in  one  pan 
of  the  scales  and  then  into  the  other,  to  be  quite 
certain  that  the  balance  is  perfectly  true.  But 
such  a  cumbersome  method,  reminding  us  of  the 
time  when  Abraham  weighed  his  pieces  of  silver, 
must  disappear  before  the  onrush  of  civilization 
and  commerce.  At  least  one  offer  has  already 
been  made  to  the  Prime  Minister  by  an  English 
firm  to  supply  the  country  with  a  coinage  of  its 

3 


33 


MADAGASCAR  AXD  FRANCE. 


own.  But  before  this  can  be  accomplished  many 
conservative  prejudices  have  to  be  overcome  and 
the  suspicious  distrust  of  the  people  to  be  sur- 
mounted. After  having  been  accustomed  to 
weigh  every  piece  of  silver,  and  to  reject  every 
smooth  dollar,  it  will  not  be  easy  to  induce  these 
people  to  accept  coins  of  a  nominal  value  only; 
more  especially  as  with  them  time  is  not  an  arti- 
cle of  very  great  value,  and  haggling  a  long  while 
over  the  just  balancing  of  a  pennyworth  of  silver 
is  a  daily  amusement. 

The  food  supply  of  the  coast  tribes  is  abun- 
dant, cheap,  and  of  good  quality.  The  staple 
commodity  is  rice,  which  is  usually  boiled  in 
water,  in  native  earthenware  or  iron  pots,  and 
eaten  with  beef,  poultry,  or  native  vegetables,  of 
which  there  are  several  kinds  wholesome  and 
good.  These  people  have  few,  if  any,  distinctively 
native  dishes,  and  in  this  way  differ  considerably 
from  the  islanders  of  the  Pacific.  The  beef  or 
poultry  is  almost  invariably  stewed  or  boiled,  and 
although  some  of  the  better  classes  occasionally 
present  the  stranger  with  a  roasted  fowl,  there  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  this  style  of  cooking 
is  not  native.  Fish  is  sometimes  broiled  on  the 
embers  or  on  a  roughly-made  gridiron  held  over  the 
fire;  but  the  sweet  potatoes,  manioc,  yams,  and 
arum  are  boiled,  the  latter  in  banana  leaves,  to 


MALAGASY  CIVILIZATION. 


39 


extract  the  acid  principle,  so  injurious  if  taken 
into  the  system.  Maize,  beans,  millet,  earth-nuts, 
pistachios,  pumpkins,  tomatoes,  are  also  usually 
boiled  by  the  natives  and  eaten  with  their  rice. 
Salt,  obtained  from  the  sea  and  from  one  or  two 
aquatic  plants,  chillies,  and  ginger  are  also  uni- 
versally used.  The  bread-fruit,  and  the  cassava 
made  into  arrowroot,  although  tolerably  abundant 
on  the  west  coast,  are  comparatively  scarce  in  the 
east,  and  cannot  be  looked  upon  as  an  article  of 
native  diet  there. 

In  the  central  provinces,  upon  the  cooler  soil 
of  the  table-land,  potatoes  and  other  vegetables 
common  on  European  tables  are  cultivated  and 
are  relished  by  the  people.  Here  also  sheep  are 
successfully  reared.  These  are  of  a  hairy  breed, 
with  large  fat  tails  (considered  the  most  delicate 
portion  for  eating),  and  partaking  very  much  of 
the  character  of  the  goat.  The  flesh  is  somewhat 
coarse  and  hard,  altogether  lacking  the  flavor  of 
English  mutton. 

The  principal  native  beverage  is  rice  water, 
made  by  boiling  some  water  in  the  rice  pot  from 
which  the  unburned  portion  of  the  cooked  rice  has 
been  taken,  and  that  part  which  is  burned  and 
that  adheres  to  the  sides  is  allowed  to  remain. 
This  is  drunk  hot  and  without  any  addition  of 
sugar  or  salt.    A  very  great  number  of  the  people 


40  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

drink  coffee,  which  they  grow  and  roast  for  them- 
selves, and  generally  sweeten  with  syrup,  sugar, 
or  sugar-cane  juice.  In  some  parts  of  the  country 
a  tea  is  made  either  from  the  imported  Indian  or 
China  leaf,  or  from  the  leaves  of  certain  plants 
growing  in  the  country.  The  latter  is  to  Euro- 
pean taste  anything  but  palatable.  The  water  in 
the  interior  of  the  country  is,  generally  speaking, 
good,  although  in  some  districts  many  tasteless, 
hard  and  lime  impregnated  springs  are  found. 
On  the  east  coast  the  water,  which  has  to  be  ob- 
tained by  sinking  wells  in  the  sand,  is  decidedly 
bad,  being  filled  with  animal  and  vegetable  or- 
ganisms, easily  detected  by  the  microscope.  Most 
foreigners  on  the  coast  carefully  collect  the  rain- 
water in  tanks  for  drinking,  reserving  the  well- 
water  for  washing  and  cooking  purposes. 

At  least  two  kinds  of  intoxicating  drinks  are 
used  by  the  natives,  one  a  sort  of  mead,  made 
from  sugar-cane  juice,  honey,  and  one  or  other 
of  the  aromatic  plants  used  as  a  flavoring.  The 
other,  a  spirit  distilled  from  the  fermented  juice 
of  the  sugar-cane,  and  occasionally  scented  with 
the  wild  anise  of  the  country,  is  a  much  more 
powerful  intoxicant,  and  its  use  by  the  people  is 
greatly  to  be  deplored.  In  Betsileo  villages  it 
was  no  uncommon  thing  for  villagers  to  be  in  an 
almost  constant  state  of  intoxication  for  a  week 


MALAGASY  CIVILIZATION.  41 

during  trie  funeral  ceremonies  of  one  of  their  de- 
parted fellow-villagers. 

Although  somewhat  indolent,  the  average 
Malagasy  is  a  clever  and  intelligent  workman  in 
the  various  arts  that  have  been  introduced  at  dif- 
ferent times  among  them.  The  Hovas,  more 
especially,  have  proved  themselves  adepts  at  im- 
itation of  the  most  intricate  developments  of  the 
handicrafts  they  have  learned.  Given  a  Hova 
who  has  learned  a  particular  art  and  had  a  little 
practice  at  it,  and  one  may  rely  upon  getting  a 
very  clever  imitation  of  any  piece  of  work  that 
can  be  wrought  in  that  art  with  the  tools  he  has 
or  can  make.  Hence  it  is  that  specimens  of  na- 
tive-made gold  and  silver  jewelry,  especially  the 
filigree  work,  brought  to  England  have  excited 
so  much  admiration  among  connoisseurs. 

The  most  universal  manufacture  in  the  coun- 
try is  spinning  and  weaving.  This  is  doubtless 
an  introduced  industry,  but  from  whom  it  has 
come  no  very  clear  tradition  gives  a  clew.  There 
is  good  reason,  however,  for  thinking  that  the 
Arabs  taught  the  Malagasy  the  art.  The  looms 
are  very  similar,  and  the  patterns  of  the  cloths, 
with  their  red,  blue,  yellow,  and  green  stripes,  al- 
most identical  with  those  used  by  the  Arabs.  Rofia, 
flax,  hemp,  cotton,  bark,  silk,  beside  other  fibres, 
are  spun  with  the  simplest  possible  kind  of  spin- 


42  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

die,  consisting  of  a  thin  round  piece  of  the  bark 
of  the  tree-fern  or  anivona  palm,  about  a  foot  long, 
having  a  round  flat  piece  of  bone  attached  near 
one  end  to  give  weight.  The  fibre,  held  in  the 
left  hand,  is  attached  to  a  small  piece  of  grass 
stalk  tied  across  the  top  of  the  spindle,  so  as  to 
form  a  kind  of  hook.  Being  spun  round  with 
the  thumb  and  finger  of  the  right  hand,  the  bone 
at  the  head  is  sufficiently  heavy  to  give  enough 
momentum  to  allow  of  the  fibre  being  drawn  and 
spun  to  almost  any  degree  of  fineness. 

The  thread  is  dyed  with  different  vegetable 
and  mineral  dyes  found  in  the  country,  for  which 
the  people  have  discovered  the  proper  ingredients; 
and  of  late  years  a  number  of  aniline  dyes  from 
Europe  have  been  extensively  used. 

The  native  loom  is  of  the  most  primitive 
construction.  The  threads  having  been  made 
into  loops  of  equal  length,  each  is  placed  upon  a 
couple  of  cross -sticks  about  three  feet  long. 
These  two  sticks  are  then  attached  at  their  ends 
to  four  stumps  driven  in  the  ground,  and  so  the 
threads  are  drawn  tight.  Heelds  are  attached  to 
every  other  thread  in  the  centre,  and  thin  pieces 
of  wood  are  also  passed  across  the  threads  alter- 
nately, as  in  plaiting.  By  raising  the  heelds, 
which  are  fixed  to  a  cross-piece  of  wood,  a  shed  is 
obtained  for  the  introduction  of  the  shuttle,  which 


MALAGASY  CIVILIZATION. 


43 


consists  merely  of  a  piece  of  wood  eight  or  ten 
inches  long  with  some  of  the  fibre  rolled  upon  it. 
This  is  not  u  thrown,"  but  simply  pushed  from 
one  side  to  the  other  of  the  warp,  often  by  one 
woman  to  her  companion,  and  so  the  first  thread 
of  the  woof  is  laid.  The  heelds  are  then  low- 
ered, and  the  two  cross-pieces  interlaced  are  drawn 
forward,  thus  reversing  the  shed.  The  shuttle  is 
once  more  pushed  through  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, and  the  second  thread  after  being  drawn 
tight  is  knocked  up  close  to  its  predecessor  by  a 
piece  of  wood  shaped  like  a  large  blunt  knife  in- 
troduced into  the  shed.  This  process  is  repeated 
until  the  whole  of  the  warp  is  taken  up.  After 
the  day's  work  is  done,  the  loom  is  easily  de- 
tached from  the  four  stumps  which  hold  it  and 
rolled  up.  It  occupies  very  little  space  in  the 
corner  of  the  house,  and  this  is  no  doubt  the  cause 
of  the  failure  to  introduce  the  English  or  Norwe- 
gian spinning-wheel  and  hand-loom.  When  the 
simplicity  of  the  apparatus  is  considered,  it  is 
wonderful  that  the  natives  can  produce  such  fine, 
regularly- woven  cloths  as  those  which  have  found 
their  way  to  England,  and  have  been  seen  by 
many  interested  in  the  progress  of  heathen  and 
uncivilized  nations. 

The  iron  manufacture  carried  on  in  the  coun- 
try appears  to  be  partly  of  European  origin,  and 


44  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


was  doubtless  introduced  by  the  artisans  sent  out 
by  the  London  Missionary  Society  at  the  request 
of  Radama  I.  The  native  mode  of  smelting  is 
very  simple.  Iron  ore  (the  black  oxide)  is  found 
very  near  to  the  surface  in  many  parts  of  the 
country,  and  is  very  pure,  yielding  from  50  to  70 
per  cent,  of  iron.  This  is  placed  in  the  form  of  a 
semicircular  bank  in  a  hole  dug  in  the  ground, 
the  concave  side  towards  the  pipe  conveying  the 
blast,  which  enters  the  pit  below  a  large  flat  stone 
set  up  edgeways.  Between  this  stone  and  the 
iron  ore  is  the  receptacle  for  the  charcoal,  which 
when  once  alight  is  banked  up  to  fill  the  pit, 
while  a  continual  blast  is  kept  up  for  several  hours 
by  relays  of  men.  Their  bellows  consist  of  two 
upright  cylinders  of  wood  about  four  feet  long,  in 
which  a  piston  with  a  rough  kind  of  valve  is  made 
to  wTork,  while  at  the  lower  extremity  the  cylinder 
is  closed.  At  the  side  near  the  bottom  is  a  small 
hole,  in  which  a  pipe  of  bamboo  is  fitted,  convey- 
ing the  blast  to  the  fire.  One  man  works  each 
piston,  and  by  doing  so  alternately  an  almost  con- 
tinual blast  is  kept  up.  After  the  usual  interval 
the  fire  is  allowed  to  go  down,  and  the  iron,  cooled 
into  a  solid  lump,  is  fished  out  with  hooks,  and  is 
ready  for  the  smith.  In  this  way,  by  smelting 
with  charcoal  in  which  the  ore  is  buried,  a  cer- 
tain portion  of  the  carbon  is  absorbed,  and  a  kind 


MALAGASY  CIVILIZATION. 


45 


of  steel  is  the  result,  which,  when  wrought  into 
knives,  hatchets,  swords,  and  spears,  and  properly 
tempered,  is  capable  of  receiving  a  good  service- 
able edge. 

The  forge  very  much  resembles  the  smelting 
apparatus,  except  that  the  cylinders  for  producing 
the  blast  are  not  so  long.  The  anvil  is  simply  a 
block  of  iron  let  into  a  log  of  wood  laid  on  the 
ground;  and  the  blacksmith  uses  his  hammer  and 
tongs  while  sitting  very  comfortably  on  his  heels, 
presenting  a  strangely  different  aspect  from  the 
brawny-armed  men  wielding  the  sledge-hammers 
in  our  factories  and  forges. 

Castings  are  made  of  iron,  brass,  or  copper  by 
melting  the  metal  in  crucibles  of  a  peculiar  fria- 
ble sandstone  (which  when  freshly  quarried  is 
very  soft,  but  when  burned  becomes  vitrified  and 
extremely  hard),  and  then  run  into  moulds  made 
of  a  moulding-sand'  of  good  quality  found  in  sev- 
eral parts  of  the  central  plateau.  Some  of  the 
brass  castings  in  the  Chapel  Royal  will  bear  close 
examination,  and  would  be  no  discredit  to  the 
best  foundries  of  this  country.  Considering  too 
the  entire  absence  of  machinery,  one  is  surprised 
at  the  highly-finished  files,  scissors,  knives,  and 
needles  that  can  be  turned  out  of  the  native 
blacksmith's  shop  to  compete,  at  any  rate  in 
price,  if  not  in  quality,  with  those  sent  from  Eng- 


46 


MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


land.  So  abundant  is  the  iron,  and  of  such  good 
quality  and  so  near  the  surface,  that  it  only  re- 
quires the  country  to  be  opened  up  and  greater 
facilities  to  be  given  to  the  foreigners  for  introdu- 
cing European  methods  and  machinery  to  make 
this  branch  of  industry  a  lucrative  speculation. 

The  art  of  plaiting  straw,  grass,  or  rushes  to 
make  mats,  hats,  bags,  and  various  domestic  arti- 
cles is  universal.  In  some  parts  of  the  country 
mats  made  from  a  soft  rush,  the  harvfo  (belonging 
to  the  natural  order  of  JuncacecB),  are  still  used  as 
the  only  clothing  of  the  people;  and  in  very  many 
tribes  mats  made  of  this  rush  are  used  as  sleeping- 
mats.  The  zozoro,  a  rush  resembling  the  papyrus 
(Cyperus  <zqualis\  is  plaited  into  the  coarsest  mats 
for  laying  first  on  the  floors  of  the  houses,  over 
which  are  laid  those  of  a  finer  texture  made  from 
the  hazondrano,  a  Juncacea  somewhat  coarser  than 
the  hatvfo. 

On  the  coast  a  large  trade  is  carried  on  in 
sugar-bags,  made  by  plaiting  the  leaves  of  the 
pandanus  and  of  the  rofia  palm  divided  into  strips 
of  convenient  width.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of 
these  are  exported  every  year  for  packing  sugar 
in  Mauritius  and  Bourbon,  as  also  a  roughly- wov- 
en cloth,  called  rabanna,  made  from  the  rofia  fibre. 
Hats,  made  from  a  rough  but  very  pliable  kind  of 
grass  found  on  the  table-land,  are  also  exported. 


MALAGASY  CIVILIZATION.  47 

Some  are  extremely  fine,  and  being  made  double, 
with  a  coarser  kind  of  plaiting  inside,  are  very 
serviceable,  and  fetch  a  good  price  in  the  English 
market.  These  are  made  with  a  broad  brim  re- 
sembling the  panama  hats;  but  a  commoner  kind 
made  like  a  skull-cap  is  in  much  request  in  the 
country  for  the  use  of  the  bearers,  who  prefer  them 
to  the  brimmed  hats  which  are  the  only  kind  worn 
by  the  soldiers  and  better  class  of  Hovas.  In  the 
forest,  among  the  Tanala,  a  cap  with  four  points 
at  the  corners  of  the  crown,  and  ornamented  with 
black  embroidery,  is  the  kind  most  commonly  met 
with;  while  among  the  Betsimisaraka  the  hat  is 
made  of  palm-leaf  plaited,  and  has  a  brim  broad 
enough  to  cover  the  shoulders. 

Various  fancy  plaits  are  also  made,  and  many 
of  the  finest  mats,  hats,  and  baskets  are  plaited 
into  the  most  elaborate  patterns.  Some  are  deco- 
rated by  being  composed  of  different-colored  straw 
or  grass  which  has  been  dyed  for  the  purpose,  red, 
yellow,  black,  or  brown.  This  is  another  branch 
of  native  industry  which  is  capable  of  develop- 
ment in  the  interests  of  commerce,  and  could  be 
made  to  render  a  good  return. 

Native  pottery  is  of  the  roughest  description, 
and  its  manufacture  has  advanced  no  farther  than 
is  necessary  to  supply  the  very  limited  require- 
ments of  the  semi-civilised.     Cooking-pots  and 


48  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

water-pitchers  of  various  sizes,  and  a  kind  of 
double  salt-cellar  in  imitation  of  those  frequent- 
ly met  with  on  the  continent,  are  almost  the  only- 
articles  representing  the  fictile  art  in  Madagascar. 
The  water-pots  are  of  two  kinds— one  kept  in  the 
house,  and  capable  of  holding  twelve  or  sixteen 
gallons,  the  other,  a  small  pitcher  used  for  fetch- 
ing the  water  from  the  springs.  The  cooking- 
pots  are  also  of  two  kinds — one  globular,  with  a 
small  mouth,  for  cooking  meat  or  manioc,  etc., 
often  elaborately  ornamented,  and  the  other,  a 
semi-spherical  vessel  for  cooking  rice,  and  fur- 
nished with  a  lid  of  the  same  material. 

The  best  pottery  I  have  seen,  that  among  the 
Betsileo,  is  made  of  a  blue  and  red  clay  mixed. 
After  being  properly  tempered,  a  woman  takes  a 
piece  and  commences  on  a  small  board  to  build 
up,  with  the  fingers  only,  and  without  the  aid  of 
wheel  or  any  mechanical  contrivance,  just  so 
much  of  the  sides  of  a  pitcher  or  cooking-pot  as 
will  stand  without  losing  the  shape  given  it.  It 
is  then  set  aside  to  dry;  after  which  another  layer 
is  added  to  its  height,  one  hand  inside  and  the 
other  out,  regulating  the  thickness  and  shape  of 
the  article.  When  quite  dry  it  is  smoothed  by 
being  rubbed  all  over  with  a  smooth  stone  or 
piece  of  bone,  and  occasionally  the  edges  are  or- 
namented by  being  smeared  with  plumbago.  It 


MALAGASY  CIVILISATION. 


49 


is  then  placed  in  a  hole  in  the  ground  imbedded 
in  a  layer  of  dried  cow-dung,  which  is  also  used 
to  cover  in  this  roughly-formed  kiln.  A  light  is 
applied,  and  after  care  has  been  taken  to  insure 
the  ignition  of  the  fuel,  it  is  left  to  burn  itself 
out,  when  a  well-burned  and  durable  article  is 
obtained,  though  plain  and  devoid  of  ornament. 
In  this  connection  Mr.  Sibree  says  that  "  a  special 
kind  of  vessel  made  for  cooking  the  beef  at  the 
new  year's  festival  is  rather  elegant  in  shape, 
much  resembling  some  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  pot- 
tery now  and  then  found  in  our  own  country."* 
"  These  vessels  are  circular  and  somewhat  flat- 
tened, and  are  frequently  ornamented  with  a 
series  of  lines  and  zigzags  very  closely  resembling 
those  on  the  early  fictile  productions  of  the  Ger- 
man races,  "f 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  the 
use  of  the  wheel,  and  to  teach  the  people  the 
manufacture  of  plates,  dishes,  cups,  etc.,  but 
these  have  been  abortive,  either  from  the  want  of 
a  suitable  clay  or  from  the  indifference  of  the 
natives.  Where  European  pottery  cannot  be 
obtained,  plates  and  cups  are  easily  made  from 
the  fresh  green  leaves  of  the  banana,  or  travellers' 
tree,  which  can  be  folded  to  answer  these  pur- 
poses.   Spoons  or  cups  of  this  kind  are  preferred 

*  "  Great  African  Island,"  p.  208.         f  Ibid.,  p.  263. 


50  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

by  the  people  to  any  other.  Among  the  Betsileo 
and  Tanala,  dishes  are  made  from  the  pandanus 
leaf  cut  into  squares,  folded  up  at  the  cut  edges 
and  sewed  into  place.  They  are  then  dried  in  the 
sun,  and  form  a  dish  or  cup  that  will  for  a  short 
time  resist  even  hot  water,  gravy,  or  rice.  In  the 
Bara  this  requirement  is  met  by  dividing  the  gourd 
shells  into  convenient  shapes  and  cleaning  and 
polishing  the  inside.  In  some  places  on  the  coast 
the  cocoanut  shell  is  used  for  the  same  purpose, 
and  even  a  small  square  mat  closely  plaited  and 
made  to  turn  up  at  the  corners  answers  for  a  rice 
dish. 

In  the  manufacture  of  jewelry  the  Malagasy 
seem  to  have  derived  nearly  all  their  ideas  from 
foreign  sources.  Only  among  the  Bara  and  Tana- 
la have  I  seen  what  appeared  to  be  specimens  of 
purely  native  design  in  ornamental  metal-work. 
A  peculiarly  shaped  brass  pin  was,  among  one 
branch  of  the  tribe,  an  insignia  of  chieftainship, 
and  their  earrings,  bracelets,  and  anklets  were 
evidently  of  native  design.  But,  notwithstanding 
this  dearth  of  native  art  among  the  Hovas,  they 
make  extremely  dexterous  and  ingenious  silver- 
smiths, after  having  been  taught  to  use  a  few  tools 
and  supplied  with  patterns  or  models  from  which 
to  work.  In  imitation  they  appear  to  equal,  if 
not  excel,  the  Chinese.     Thus  they  will  make 


MALAGASY  CIVILIZATION. 


51 


most  excellent  copies  of  flowers,  birds,  or  Europe- 
an jewelry,  and  even  execute  a  design  from  an 
illustrated  price-list  in  sucli  a  way  as  to  defy  any 
but  an  expert  to  tell  that  it  is  not  of  English  man- 
ufacture and  made  with  all  the  advantages  of 
modern  machinery,  and  not  with  the  few  rough 
tools  in  the  possession  of  the  Hova  silversmith. 
Some  of  the  silver  chains  and  filigree-work  are 
marvels  of  fineness  and  exactness,  while  the  deli- 
cate and  precise  repairs  successfully  done  to  valu- 
able watches  would  drive  an  English  watchmaker 
to  despair  when  he  saw  the  tools  with  which  it 
was  to  be  performed.  The  long,  delicate  fingers 
and  keen  eyesight  of  the  Hova  seem  admirably 
adapted  for  this  kind  of  employment. 

Almost  the  same  terms  could  be  used  in  speak- 
ing of  carpentry  and  cabinet-making,  nothing  but 
the  roughest  specimens  of  these  arts  having  been 
used  until  European  necessities  induced  the  peo- 
ple to  turn  their  hands  to  this  branch  of  industry. 
Now  well-made  furniture  and  cleverly-finished 
cabinet-work  can  be  purchased  from  the  native 
workshops,  and,  for  solid,  good  workmanship  and 
enduring  qualities,  may  be  compared  favorably 
with  much  of  the  showy,  ginger-bread  furniture 
turned  out  from  the  English  factories. 

Carving  and  artistic  designs,  while  apparently 
altogether  absent  from  among  the  Hovas  before 


52  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

the  introduction  of  Western  civilization,  were  not 
by  any  means  wanting  in  other  tribes.  Among 
the  Betsileo,  Bara,  and  Tanala  most  elaborate  de- 
signs are  to  be  discovered  in  the  ornamentation  of 
the  house-posts,  window-shutters,  doors,  pitcher- 
stands,  spoon-handles,  etc. ;  and  every  one  travel- 
ling into  this  part  of  the  island  has  been  struck 
with  the  skill  displayed  upon  the  adornment  of 
the  tombs  and  monumental  stones  in  the  Betsileo 
country.  After  taking  a  great  number  of  rub- 
bings of  these  carved  designs,  I  was  struck  with 
the  fact  that  the  simple  or  elementary  design  is 
almost  identical  with  the  same  species  of  orna- 
ment in  Polynesia.  On  a  carved  hatchet  handle 
.  in  my  possession,  from  Mangaia,  are  some  patterns 
precisely  like  those  I  had  obtained  from  the  Bet- 
sileo houses  and  tombs.  These  patterns  appear 
to  be  an  elaboration  of  the  circle  and  triangle, 
singly  or  in  combination,  which  fill  up  the  differ- 
ent squares  into  which  the  whole  post  or  shutter 
is  divided. 

Perhaps  the  most  elaborately-carved  post  I  saw 
during  my  residence  of  eight  years  in  the  Betsileo 
was  at  a  small  village  about  a  day's  journey  north- 
west of  Fianarantsoa.  This  was  the  central  post 
of  a  high  house  belonging  to  one  of  the  chiefs. 
It  was  twenty  feet  long,  and  carved  from  top  to 
bottom.    Each  of  the  four  surfaces,  about  eigh- 


MALAGASY  CIVILIZATION. 


55 


teen  inches  broad,  was  divided  into  sections  by- 
cross-cuts  forming  squares  with  the  edge  of  the 
post.  In  each  of  these  were  different  designs 
formed  according  to  the  individual  tastes  of  the 
many  men  who  were  probably  impressed  into  the 
service  of  the  chief  to  perform  the  work.  Some 
consisted  of  radiating  triangles  whose  apices  met 
in  the  central  point;  some  were  filled  with  pairs 
of  circles  touching  each  other  at  the  circumfer- 
ence; others  were  concentric  circles,  and  the  cor- 
ners filled  with  excrescences  springing  from  the 
outermost  circle;  other  squares  were  filled  with 
zigzag  lines  running  parallel  to  each  other,  or 
running  diagonally  across  the  square,  while  in 
some  were  rough  imitations  of  birds,  bullocks, 
crocodiles,  etc. 

On  many  of  the  Betsileo  tombs  and  monumen- 
tal stones  are  also  found,  in  addition  to  the  de- 
signs referred  to,  bullocks,  or  bullocks'  heads, 
probably  to  show  the  number  of  cattle  killed  at 
the  funeral  of  the  man  buried  there. 

But  that  the  Hovas  are  capable  of  proficiency 
in  this  art  also  is  shown  by  the  stone-carving 
round  the  memorial  churches,  the  elaborate  carv- 
ing of  the  Queen's  throne  in  the  Chapel  Royal, 
and  by  the  beautifully-wrought  bone  ornaments 
made  in  imitation  of  those  worn  in  England. 

In  regard  to  the  musical  art  it  may  be  said 

Madagascar  aud  Fi  ante.  A 


56  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

that,  although  the  Malagasy  are  passionately  foud 
of  music,  have  a  fair  proportion  of  good  voices, 
and  delight  in  singing,  yet  their  national  music 
is  of  the  most  primitive  kind.  All  their  songs 
are  mere  chants,  containing  at  the  most  but  three 
or  four  individual  sounds,  and  many  of  them 
scarcely  removed  from  a  monotone.  They  were 
evidently  invented  for  the  purpose  of  keeping 
time  in  paddling  their  canoes  or  in  transplanting 
the  young  rice.  In  both  cases  it  is  usual  for  one 
to  sing  a  kind  of  refrain  while  they  all  keep  time 
with  the  movements  of  the  body,  so  that  at  the 
accented  note  the  paddle  is  inserted  and  a  vig- 
orous pull  is  given  in  the  former  case,  or  a  young 
plant  is  pushed  into  the  mud  in  the  latter  in- 
stance. Children  have  also  many  games  similar 
to  those  played  by  boys  and  girls  in  England, 
where  one  party  sings  its  reply  to  another,  or 
where  a  company  keeps  time  in  its  march  to  the 
song  of  the  leader,  all  joining  in  a  kind  of  chorus. 

The  instrumental  music  native  among  the 
people  is  also  little  more  than  a  rhythmical  rep- 
etition of  two  or  three  notes;  but  some  of  their 
instruments  are  capable  of  rendering  any  simple 
tune,  and  by  those  who  have  received  instruction 
in  music  they  are  so  used  now.  Without  pre- 
tending to  furnish  a  complete  list  of  all  the  musi- 
cal instruments  native  to  the  country,  it  may  be 


MALAGASY  CIVILIZATION. 


57 


interesting  to  give  a  short  description  of  those 
which  have  come  under  the  writer's  observation. 

The  simplest  and  probably  the  oldest  instru- 
ment used  to  produce  a  sound  for  making  a 
rhythm  is  found  among  the  Ibara  and  the  people 
of  Ikongo,  in  the  south  and  southeast  of  the  Bet- 
sileo  respectively,  and  consists  of  a  bamboo  eight 
or  ten  feet  long,  and  three  or  four  inches  in  diam- 
eter, split  at  several  joints,  but  not  divided.  This 
is  mounted  on  two  short  sticks,  forked,  and  stuck 
in  the  ground,  standing  a  few  inches  high.  On 
both  sides  of  this  bamboo  the  players  are  ar- 
ranged, each  having  in  his  or  her  hands  short 
sticks  for  striking.  By  varying  the  force  of  the 
strokes  a  time  is  kept,  accompanied  generally  by 
singing  and  clapping  of  hands,  to  which  the 
dancers  keep  time. 

In  one  of  their  heathenish  ceremonies  the  iron 
part  of  an  old  spade  is  suspended  by  a  string,  and, 
being  struck  with  another  piece  of  iron,  is  used  to 
mark  the  time  in  the  native  dance  during  the  per- 
formance of  the  sdlamanga  elsewhere  described; 
but  I  have  never  seen  it  used  at  any  other  time. 

Two  kinds  of  drums  are  used:  one,  a  species 
of  tom-tom,  is  about  eighteen  inches  long  and 
nine  inches  to  a  foot  in  diameter.  Both  ends  are 
covered  with  parchment  made  of  sheep's  or  goat's 
skin  stretched  tight  and  pegged  to  the  body  of 


58  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

the  drum  with  wooden  pegs.  Strings  are  at- 
tached for  suspending  the  drum  from  the  neck 
of  the  player,  who  strikes  with  the  flat  of  his  fin- 
gers. The  woodwork  is  usually  hollowed  from 
the  solid  trunk  of  a  tree.  The  larger  drum  is 
from  two  to  three  feet  high  and  three  to  four 
feet  in  diameter,  made  of  thin  wood  bent  into 
shape  by  heat,  and  tied  with  thongs  of  leather. 
The  ends  are  covered  with  dried  bullock's  hide, 
stretched  tight  on  bands  of  wood  fitting  outside 
the  body  of  the  drum.  It  is  beaten  with  sticks 
with  knobs,  but  uncovered.  Drums  seem  to  be 
universal  in  the  country,  as  they  are  found  in  dif- 
ferent tribes  living  a  long  distance  apart. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  native  flutes — one 
about  two  feet  nine  inches  long,  made  from  a 
long  joint  of  bamboo,  smoothed  inside  with  a  red- 
hot  piece  of  iron,  and  having  three  holes  near  the 
lower  end.  This  long  flute  I  have  seen  in  the 
Betsileo,  Ikongo,  Bara,  and  Taimoro  tribes.  The 
other  kind  is  also  made  of  bamboo,  about  a  foot 
in  length,  and  having  six  holes,  with  occasionally 
a  seventh  for  the  thumb  on  the  reverse  side  from 
the  six  holes.  This  is  found  in  Imerina,  Tanala, 
and  Betsileo — where  it  has  probably  been  intro- 
duced from  Imerina.  Both  kinds  have  the  two 
ends  open  and  are  held  sideways,  slanting  down- 
ward when  used,  the  player  blowing  across  the 


MALAGASY  CIVILIZATION. 


59 


open  end  farthest  removed  from  the  finger-holes. 
The  breath  striking  the  inner  edge  of  the  tube  at 
right  angles  sets  up  the  vibration  by  which  the 
sound  is  produced.  The  long  flutes  give  a  loud, 
mellow  note;  and  a  band,  composed  of  half  a  doz- 
en flutes  and  a  drum,  is  used  by  some  of  the  chiefs 
to  accompany  them  on  state  occasions;  and  the 
effect,  though  somewhat  monotonous,  is  by  no 
means  unpleasant. 

Another  instrument  used  by  the  Betsileo,  the 
Betsimisaraka,  the  Tanala,  and  the  Ibara  is  the 
lokangamboatavo,  a  species  of  lyre.  A  piece  of 
hard  wood  about  two  feet  long  is  fixed  at  one  end 
to  the  half  of  a  gourd-shell,  which  forms  the 
sounding-board ;  at  the  other  end  of  the  stick  are 
three  frets  or  bridges,  left  in  cutting  out  the  wood, 
over  which  two  strings  made  of  cat-gut  are  passed, 
and  festened  at  each  end  of  the  long  piece  of  wood. 
The  player  places  the  bottom  of  the  half  gourd- 
shell  against  his  chest,  holding  the  stick  near  the 
end  in  his  left  hand.  By  twanging  the  strings 
with  the  thumb  of  the  right  hand,  and  using  the 
fingers  of  the  left  to  press  the  strings  firmly  on 
the  frets,  he  has  six  notes  at  command.  I  have 
found  a  want  of  uniformity  in  the  tuning  of  these 
two  strings;  each  player  seems  to  suit  his  own 
taste,  tuning  them  to  thirds,  fifths,  or  even  octaves 
by  untying  them  and  drawing  them  tight  before 


6o  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

readjusting  them,  as  there  is  no  movable  bridge 
or  peg  for  tuning. 

In  the  Betsimisaraka  tribe,  the  only  one  in 
which  I  have  found  it,  a  kind  of  single-stringed 
lyre  is  used,  called  a  jejilava.  A  stick  about  four 
feet  in  length  has  the  half  of  a  gourd-shell  fixed 
near  one  end,  and  a  string  attached  to  the  other 
end  is  passed  over  a  bridge  near  the  gourd  and 
fixed  securely  to  that  end  of  the  stick.  In  some 
cases,  however,  the  bridge  is  altogether  dispensed 
with,  and  the  bend  of  the  stick  is  made  to  keep 
the  string  clear.  The  gourd  is  pressed  against 
the  chest  of  the  player  by  his  left  hand,  the  fin- 
gers of  which  shorten  the  string  by  pushing  it 
against  the  bridge  or  by  simply  pressing  firmly 
against  it  with  the  back  of  the  finger.  In  his 
right  hand  he  holds  a  piece  of  dried  pandanus 
leaf,  folded  into  the  shape  of  a  tall,  square  bottle 
and  containing  a  few  grains  of  rice.  In  the  same 
hand  he  holds  a  thin  piece  of  elastic  wood  or  bam- 
boo, with  which  he  strikes  the  string  between  the 
left  hand  and  the  end  of  the  stick  nearest  to  the 
gourd,  producing  a  curious  combination  of  sounds, 
the  rattling  of  the  rice  in  the  leaf  imitating  the 
side  drum  played  pianissimo,  while  the  click  and 
sound  of  the  string  resemble  to  a  certain  extent 
the  sharp,  snapping  sound  of  an  old  harpsi- 
chord. 


MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 


MALAGASY  CIVILIZATION. 


63 


But  by  far  the  most  elaborate  instrument  the 
Malagasy  have  is  the  valiJia.  It  is  formed  of  a 
piece  of  bamboo  about  four  feet  long  and  four 
inches  in  diameter.  uAt  a  first  glance  this  long 
cylinder  seems  to  have  a  set  of  strings  attached 
to  it,  which  are  held  out  from  the  trunk  by  a 
movable  fret  or  bridge  inserted  near  the  end  of 
each;  but  these  strings  are  really  thin  slices  of 
the  cane,  no  thicker  than  a  violin  string,  which, 
though  they  stand  out  from  the  stem,  are  a  part 
of  it,  and  have  only  been  split  away  for  the  length 
of  two  feet.  Any  further  splitting  is  prevented 
at  either  end  by  a  band  of  cord  tied  round  the 
stem.  If  a  string  breaks,  another  is  easily  cut 
from  the  trunk.  The  strings  stand  at  equal  dis- 
tances all  round  the  stem,  surrounding  it  as  the 
iron  frame- work  surrounds  an  umbrella  handle 
when  the  umbrella  is  closed."  Different  instru- 
ments have  a  different  number  of  strings,  varying 
from  14  to  20  or  24.  They  are  tuned  by  moving 
the  frets  along  the  string,  and  when  properly 
tuned  it  sounds  one  or  two  complete  major  dia- 
tonic scales.  On  some,  wires  are  introduced 
screwed  up  with  pegs,  as  in  a  violin,  giving  a 
sound  two  octaves  lower,  and  its  fifth  for  filling 
in  a  simple  bass.  This  instrument  is  undoubtedly 
traditional  among  the  Tanala,  Betsileo  and  Hovas, 
as  none  can  give  any  account  of  its  origin.  And 


64  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

although  Wallace,  in  his  ''Tropical  Nature,"  de- 
scribes an  instrument  very  similar,  used  in  Timor, 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  has  not  been  im- 
ported into  Madagascar,  unless,  indeed,  by  the 
people  themselves.  In  playing,  the  strings  are 
plucked  by  the  nail,  and  the  long  nail  on  the  lit- 
tle finger  is  for  this  put  into  requisition.  Clever 
players  can  reproduce  any  tune  on  this  instru- 
ment, and  it  is  by  no  means  disagreeable.  Only 
a  short  time  before  I  left  Madagascar  I  heard  a 
man  on  board  the  "Antananarivo"  play  some 
elaborate  dance  music,  the  National  Anthem,  the 
Marseillaise,  etc.,  in  a  style  far  more  pleasing  to 
the  ear  than  that  of  the  music-box  from  which  he 
had  learned  them. 

A  large  number  of  European  instruments  are 
now  used  in  Madagascar,  and  very  good  bands 
are  to  be  met  with  in  some  of  the  Government 
towns,  composed  either  of  stringed  or  wind  instru- 
ments, with  cymbals,  triangles,  and  side  drums. 
Harmoniums  are  not  at  all  uncommon,  and  many 
natives  have,  thanks  to  the  tonic  sol-fa,  become 
fairly  proficient  players,  conducting  the  singing 
in  the  services  on  Sunday  in  a  highly  creditable 
manner. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MALAGASY. 


65 


CHAPTER  HI. 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  MALAGASY. 

Theories  Regarding  the  Origin  of  the  Malagasy.  Mr.  Staniland 
Wake.  Objections  to  the  African  Origin.  Probability  of  East- 
ern Origin.  Traditions.  Vazimba.  Hovas  Admitted  to  be 
Malay.  Physiognomy.  Language.  The  Dark-skinned  Races. 
Craniology.  Dr.  Hildebrandt's  Testimony.  Some  Differ- 
ence in  the  Two  Branches  of  the  Polynesian  Races.  Habits 
and  Customs  Connecting  Malagasy  with  Polynesian.  Hovas 
Landed  on  Southeast.  Their  Probable  Course.  Arabic  In- 
fluence. Immigration  of  Dark-skinned  Race  much  more  An- 
cient. 

Regarding  the  origin  of  the  Malagasy,  many 
writers  have,  at  greater  or  less  length,  expounded 
their  theories,  some  of  which  have  been  very  far- 
fetched, and  some  based  apparently  upon  a  very 
meagre  acquaintance  with  the  Malagasy.  Mr. 
Staniland  Wake  has  published  two  pamphlets, 
the  former  of  which  was  read  before  the  Anthro- 
pological Society  in  1869,  and  was  based  on  pure 
supposition.  The  suggestion  of  Dr.  Sclater  to 
account  for  the  highly  specialized  character  of 
the  fauna  of  the  island,  viz.,  that  a  continent 
since  submerged  existed  at  a  remote  period  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  connecting  Africa  with  the  south- 
eastern corner  of  Asia,  was  the  basis  of  this  the- 
ory.   Admitting  this,  it  was  easy  to  imagine  that 


66 


MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


this  lost  continent  of  "Lemuria"  was  inhabited 
by  two  races,  one  light-skinned  and  the  other 
with  a  dark  skin  and  frizzy  hair.  But,  as  has 
been  shown,  the  arguments  of  Mr.  Wallace  are 
conclusive  against  the  theory  of  an  ancient  but 
now  submerged  continent.  By  the  perusal  of  his 
later  pamphlet,  published  in  1880,  we  find  that 
Mr.  Wake  has  entirely  abandoned  his  earlier  sup- 
position that  the  light-skinned  Hovas  were  of 
Melanesian  origin  and  the  darker  races  of  the 
island  were  the  representatives  of  the  Hottentots; 
and  he  endeavors  to  prove  by  their  communi- 
ty of  habits  and  customs  that  the  Malagasy  are 
of  Siamese  origin.  But,  as  far  as  I  am  able  to 
judge,  precisely  the  same  arguments  may  be 
used,  and  almost  all  the  instances  adduced  apply 
equally  well  to  the  inhabitants  of  Malaysia;  and 
it  seems  scarcely  reasonable  to  suppose  that  as 
the  arguments  apply  to  a  spot  nearer  home,  the 
district  further  afield  should  be  looked  to  as  the 
source  from  which  the  Malagasy  have  sprung. 

Geographical  proximity  must  of  course  always 
carry  some  weight  in  an  inquiry  of  this  nature, 
although  it  does  not  follow  that  the  home  of  a 
race  not  autochthonous  was  the  nearest  continent. 
The  character  of  the  original  race,  whether  they 
were  maritime  or  not  in  their  habits,  must  be 
taken  into  consideration  in  conjunction  with  phys- 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MALAGASY. 


67 


ical  phenomena,  such  as  the  prevailing  winds 
and  currents,  when  the  inquiry  relates  to  the 
origin  of  the  inhabitants  of  an  island.  For  these 
reasons,  if  there  were  no  others,  we  should  incline 
to  connect  the  Malagasy  with  the  Malay  race 
rather  than  with  the  Siamese,  as  both  have  very 
much  the  same  customs  and  would  both  be  influ- 
enced by  the  same  physical  facts  of  favorable 
wind  and  current.  On  the  other  hand,  although 
Madagascar  is  so  near  the  African  continent,  the 
inference,  from  the  nature  of  the  coast,  the  sea, 
and  the  wind,  is  that  Madagascar  was  not  peopled 
from  that  source.  The  absolute  want  of  any- 
thing like  a  safe  harbor  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa 
would  create  a  population  very  unlikely  to  trust 
themselves  any  distance  from  the  shore,  even  in 
calm  weather.  And  this  would  imply  an  absence 
of  seagoing  craft  of  any  kind,  even  of  large  ca- 
noes. Then  again,  even  if,  despite  natural  dis- 
advantages, the  original  inhabitants  of  the  coast 
had  developed  into  a  maritime  race,  no  natural 
phenomena  exist  to  account  for  their  ever  find- 
ing their  way  to  Madagascar.  The  prevailing 
wind  is  from  the  southeast  and  northeast,  and 
although  in  Madagascar  a  westerly  wind  does 
occasionally  blow  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
cold  season,  yet  it  never  continues  for  more  than 
a  day  or  two,  a  length  of  time  far  too  short  for 


68 


MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


the  passage  from  the  nearest  point  of  the  continent 
to  the  most  western  portion  of  the  island.  Besides 
the  wind  being  against  this  theory,  the  current 
sets  very  strongly  in  the  opposite  direction.  The 
equatorial  current  sets  from  the  east,  one  portion 
breaks  on  the  coast  of  Madagascar  a  little  to  the 
north  of  Tamatave,  and  divides,  one  part  running 
swiftly  to  the  north  and  passing  round  the  north- 
ern point  of  the  island,  and  the  other  flowing 
more  slowly  towards  the  south  and  joining  the 
Cape  current,  also  setting  to  the  southwest. 
Hence  it  is  highly  improbable  that  we  should 
have  to  look  to  Africa  for  the  root-stock  of  the 
Malagasy. 

Mr.  Wallace  has  also  conclusively  shown  that 
Madagascar  has  been  an  anciently  isolated  land, 
and  the  probability  is  that  for  many  ages  it  has 
never  been  connected  with  the  continent,  and  no 
communication  was  possible  except  by  water. 

A  set  of  circumstances  exactly  the  reverse  of 
the  above  bears  upon  the  theory  of  the  Malayan 
origin  of  the  Malagasy.  The  Malays  have  always 
been  a  maritime  people,  possessing  many  natural 
facilities  for  the  development  of  this  quality,  good 
harbors,  protected  seas,  and  invariable  winds. 
They  have  shown  their  enterprise  by  the  extent 
of  sea  over  which  they  have  roamed,  and  the  dis- 
tance between  the  islands  in  the  Polynesian  archi- 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MALAGASY.  69 

pelagos  which  they  are  known  to  have  peopled, 
from  New  Zealand  to  the  Marquesas.  Both 
winds  and  currents  would  favor  the  supposition 
that  some  of  these  hardy  mariners  had  been  drifted 
out  of  their  reckoning  and  been  carried  by  their 
influence  to  Madagascar. 

I  am  well  aware  that  of  themselves  these  ar- 
guments would  not  be  sufficient  to  prove  any 
connection  of  race.  But  other  facts  which  are 
recognized  as  bearing  upon  the  matter  strangely 
support  the  supposition  of  the  Malayan  origin  of 
the  Malagasy. 

Unfortunately  no  history  of  the  people  has 
been  preserved  previously  to  the  introduction  of 
the  gospel,  when  the  language  was  for  the  first 
time  reduced  to  writing.  Otherwise  this  would 
be  a  conclusive  indication  of  the  origin  of  the 
people.  We  are,  therefore,  driven  to  examine  the 
traditions  current  anions:  them  to  obtain  some  in- 
dication  of  the  truth. 

The  clearest  and  most  universal  tradition 
among  the  different  tribes  with  whom  I  have 
come  in  contact  is  that  they  came  from  the  east 
and  conquered  the  original  inhabitants,  who  ap- 
pear to  have  been  exterminated.  These  were 
called  Vazimba,  described  as  small  in  stature  and 
with  black  faces.  They  were  probably  of  an 
allied  race  to  the  African,  as  nomadic  tribes  of 


70  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

the  name  of  Marimba  were  mentioned  in  the 
sixteenth  century  as  occupying  the  east  coast  of 
Central  Africa.  Mr.  Dahle,  who  has  given 
considerable  attention  to  this  subject,  expresses 
his  opinion  that  the  "  Mazimba  (Vazimba  and 
Wuzimba)  may  have  been  a  collective  name  for 
several  East  African  tribes,  growing  gradually 
into  disuse  as  these  tribes  became  more  sepa- 
rated, and  from  this  common  stock  the  original 
inhabitants  of  Madagascar  (the  Vazimba)  were  an 
offshoot."*  They  appear  to  have  inhabited  the 
interior  of  the  island,  as  there  are  but  very  indis- 
tinct relics  of  tradition  referring  to  them  on  the 
east  coast,  while  there  are  numberless  spots  point- 
ed to  in  the  interior  as  graves  of  the  Vazimba; 
and  even  on  the  west  coast,  where  there  still  exist 
clear  indications  of  the  existence  of  such  a  race, 
tradition  says  they  came  from  the  east.  That  the 
Hovas  were  not  the  only  conquerors  of  the  Vazim- 
ba  is  proved  by  the  traditions  of  the  Betsileo,  who 
are  also  said  to  have  come  from  the  east  and  con- 
quered the  Vazimba.  An  utter  absence  of  tradi- 
tion among  any  of  the  tribes  of  a  western  origin 
must  carry  some  weight. 

With  scarcely  an  exception,  all  writers  upon 
the  origin  of  the  Hovas  have  accorded  to  them  a 
place  among  the  Malay  races.     The  remarkable 

*  "  Antananarivo  Annual,"  No.  V.  p.  23. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MALAGASY.  71 

similarity  of  physiognomy  between  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Imerina  and  the  Maories,  and  perhaps  the 
still  more  decided  resemblance  of  the  former  to 
the  Eastern  Polynesians,  has  strengthened  if  not 
originated  this  opinion.  The  color  and  character 
of  the  hair,  the  average  stature,  the  shape  and 
complexion  of  the  face,  the  shape  and  color  of 
the  eyes,  all  these  are  very  similar  in  the  two 
races. 

Then  as  one  becomes  acquainted  with  their 
language  it  is  found  how  closely  allied  it  is  with 
the  Polynesian  languages,  and  allied  not  simply 
by  a  mere  coincidence  in  the  sounds  of  various 
words,  but  in  the  more  important  feature  of  pos- 
sessing the  same  numerals,  very  much  the  same 
order  in  composition,  and  the  same  or  very  simi- 
lar names  for  the  most  common  objects,  which, 
being  found  in  Polynesia,  are  indigenous  to  Mad- 
agascar. It  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  Mala- 
gasy words  for  bullock,  dog,  sheep,  etc.,  are  ap- 
parently African  in  their  origin;  but  these,  with 
others,  would  be  strange  to  the  immigrants,  and 
a  name  would  have  to  be  found  for  them.  Noth- 
ing is  more  natural  than  that  the  names  used  by 
the  original  inhabitants  should  be  adopted;  and 
in  this  way  the  African  element  would  be  intro- 
duced into  the  Malagasy  language — presuming 
that  the  Va^imba  were  allied  to  the  people  on 


73  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

the  east  coast  of  the  continent.  But  while  this  is 
the  case  with  regard  to  objects  not  found  indige- 
nous in  Polynesia,  the  names  of  the  yam,  sweet 
potato,  cocoanut,  and  some  others  with  which  the 
eastern  immigrants  would  be  quite  familiar,  and 
which  they  found  in  Madagascar,  are  identical 
with  those  for  the  same  objects  in  Eastern  Poly- 
nesia. 

But  if  this,  with  the  habits  and  customs,  the 
arts  and  manufactures  practised  among  them, 
which  we  will  refer  to  presently,  is  sufficient  to 
account  for  the  Hova  origin,  what  about  the  other 
tribes — the  dark-skinned  races  of  the  island  ?  All 
the  other  peoples  in  Madagascar  are  very  much 
more  closely  allied  to  each  other  than  to  the  Ho- 
vas,  who  stand  alone  as  a  light-complexioned, 
smooth-haired  race.  Very  much  greater  differ- 
ence of  opinion  exists  regarding  the  origin  of  the 
former  races  than  of  the  latter.  This  has  arisen, 
no  doubt,  in  a  great  measure  from  the  darkness  of 
their  skin  seeming,  with  the  proximity  of  the  isl- 
and to  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  to  connect  them 
with  the  African  races.  The  identity  has  also 
been  rendered  more  delusive  by  the  known  inter- 
mixture of  African  blood  with  the  coast  tribes  in 
comparatively  modern  times.  During  a  long  pe- 
riod slaves  have  been  imported  from  Africa  into 
the  island,  and  these  have  presumably  left  their 


ORIGIN  OF  THE)  MALAGASY.  73 


impress  on  the  coast  inhabitants.  But  if  the  com- 
munion of  race  is  to  be  tested  by  physiognomy, 
we  require  very  much  more  systematic  and  scien- 
tific examination  of  facial  features  and  cranium 
measurements  than  has  yet  been  made.  The 
general  impression  left  by  a  hasty  examination 
may  be  used  as  a  slight  confirmation  of  results 
arrived  at  by  other  means,  but  cannot  be  entered 
as  the  main  witness  in  proof.  For  instance,  the 
fact  that  several  Hovas  at  different  times  to  whom 
I  have  shown  portraits  of  one  or  two  Eastern  Poly- 
nesian teachers  have  in  each  case  asked  what 
Malagasy  portraits  they  were,  and  could  scarcely 
be  convinced  that  they  represented  men  of  an- 
other nation,  may  be  accepted  as  subsidiary  testi- 
mony to  an  already  accepted  theory  that  the  Ho- 
vas and  Eastern  Polynesians  come  from  the  same 
stock,  but  it  is  of  no  further  value. 

Dr.  Hildebrandt,  the  remarkable  German  trav- 
eller, who  had  with  the  best  scientific  instruments 
made  many  cranium  measurements  in  South  Afri- 
ca and  compared  them  with  some  he  made  in 
Madagascar,  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  Mal- 
agasy were  of  African  descent.  In  a  conversation 
I  had  with  him  in  the  early  part  of  1881,  he  said 
that,  as  far  as  his  research  in,  this  matter  went,  he 
was  led  to  the  conclusion  that,  while  there  were 
some  slight  indications  of  a  connection  in  race 

Madagascar  mid  Fiance.  _ 


74  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


between  the  Hovas  and  the  South  Africans,  the 
similarity  between  the  coast  tribes  of  the  island 
and  those  in  South  Central  Africa  was  most 
marked.  This  may  be  so;  but  it  has  to  be  re- 
membered that  the  part  of  the  coast  with  which 
he  had  become  best  acquainted  is  just  that  por- 
tion of  it  which  has  been  admittedly  most  affected 
by  recent  immigrations  from  Africa.  And  hence 
those  in  the  northwest  cannot  be  taken  as  at  all 
a  typical  branch  of  the  dark-skinned  race. 

But  again,  the  same  arguments  based  on  the 
language  of  the  Hovas,  connecting  them  with  the 
Malayo-Polynesian  race,  applies  equally  well  to 
the  remaining  tribes  of  the  island.  For  the  lan- 
guage throughout  Madagascar  is  essentially  one, 
divided  certainly  into  a  number  of  different  dia- 
lects, but  differing  no  more  from  one  another  than 
that  of  Lancashire  from  the  English  of  London. 
It  has  been  found  that  wherever  the  missionaries 
who  have  learned  only  the  Hova  language  have 
gone  throughout  the  island  they  have  been  able 
to  make  themselves  understood  with  more  or  less 
ease.  There  is  far  less  difference  in  language  be- 
tween the  various  tribes  in  Madagascar  than  be- 
tween the  various  groups  of  islands  in  the  South 
Pacific,  all  of  whom,  are  admitted  to  be  of  Malay- 
an origin. 

But  in  Polynesia  we  have  just  the  same  facial 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MALAGASY.  75 

differences  as  in  Madagascar.  The  Samoans  are 
as  unlike  the  western  islanders  as  the  Hovas  are 
unlike  the  Bara,  Betsileo,  or  Betsimisaraka.  And 
seeing  that,  as  Mr.  Dahle  points  out,  many  of  the 
peculiarities  of  the  Malagasy  language  are  Mela- 
nesian  in  character,  these  facts,  taken  in  conjunc- 
tion with  various  customs  that  are  similar,  seem 
to  point  to  a  community  of  race  between  the  dark- 
skinned  inhabitants  of  Madagascar  and  the  West- 
ern Polynesians.  In  fact,  every  argument  which 
is  brought  forward  to  prove  the  affinity  of  the 
Hova  race  with  the  Malayo-Polynesian,  as  repre- 
sented by  the  eastern  islanders  of  the  Pacific,  can 
be  used  with  equal  force  and  certainty  to  prove 
the  connection  of  the  Bara,  Betsileo,  etc.,  with 
the  western  islanders. 

Skins  were  never  used  by  these  people  for 
clothing;  but  barks  of  various  trees,  soaked  in 
water  and  beaten  with  wooden  mallets  until  thin 
and  pliable,  constituted  their  earliest  form  of 
covering.  They  were  early  acquainted  with  the 
use  and  the  smelting  of  iron,  in  the  latter  opera- 
tion using  bellows  similar  to  those  in  use  among 
the  Malay  races.  The  most  solemn  contract  be- 
tween two  parties  was  concluded  by  the  practice 
of  brotherhood  by  blood.  In  the  presence  of  the 
chiefs  and  judges,  etc.,  the  common  people  al- 
ways sit,  and  not  stand.    There  is  a  long  list  of 


76  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

things  looked  upon  as  fady  or  tabooed  by  all  the 
tribes  in  the  island.  These  and  some  other  cus- 
toms which  are  found  to  exist  equally  among  the 
dark-skinned  races  of  Madagascar  as  among  the 
Hovas,  point  to  a  Malayan  origin,  and  are  direct- 
ly opposed  to  the  theory  that  Africa  was  the  cra- 
dle of  the  Sakalava,  Betsileo,  etc. 

Traditions  among  the  Hovas  indicated  that 
they  landed  originally  on  the  southeast  coast,  and 
that  this  landing  must  have  taken  place  before 
the  Norman  Conquest  of  England,  inasmuch  as 
they  remember  the  names  of  thirty-seven  succes- 
sive sovereigns  who  have  reigned  over  them. 
The  present  queen  is  the  thirty-seventh;  but  the 
first  of  the  list  is  admitted  to  be  by  no  means 
their  first  sovereign,  only  that  before  his  time  all 
their  history  is  veiled  in  obscurity  and  buried  in 
fabulous  legends.  Hence,  as  Mr.  Sibree  points 
out,  as  there  have  been  thirty-six  sovereigns  of 
England  since  the  Norman  William  landed  on 
our  shores,  it  is  feasible  to  suppose  "that  the 
average  length  of  reign  was  about  the  same  in 
Madagascar  as  in  England,"  and  that  therefore 
the  Hova  incursion  was  not  later  than  that  of  the 
Normans  into  England. 

Landing  on  the  southeast  coast,  probably  few 
in  numbers,  they  found  a  people  whose  language, 
differing  somewhat  from  their  own,  was  never- 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MALAGASY.  77 

theless  intelligible  to  them.  Here  they  resided 
until  their  numbers  had  multiplied  to  such  an 
extent  that,  incited  by  their  spirit  of  adventure, 
they  felt  themselves  strong  enough  to  march  up 
into  the  interior  of  the  island,  where  they  made 
their  permanent  home.  They  may  also  have 
been  pushed  farther  inland  by  the  incursion  of 
the  Arabs,  who  probably  landed  within  the  past 
800  years,  leaving  their  marks  in  the  language  of 
the  country,  all  the  names  of  the  months  of  the 
year  and  days  of  the  week  and  the  distinguishing 
customs  of  the  tribe  on  the  southeast  coast  of  the 
present  day  being  of  Arabic  origin. 

The  Arabic  influence  spread  in  a  very  decided 
manner  along  the  east  coast,  where  in  places  the 
people  still  maintain  that  they  are  descendants  of 
Arabs,  in  others  that  they  are  altogether  Jews,  or 
Zafy  Ibrahim,  or  Ibraha  (descendants  of  Abraham). 
The  native  name  of  the  island  of  St.  Mary,  off 
the  east  coast,  also  clearly  indicates  Arab  influ- 
ence—Nosy  Ibraha  (Abraham  Island).  The  Arabic 
influence  on  the  character  of  the  people  on  the 
northwest  is  of  much  more  recent  date,  probably 
being  introduced  with  the  import  slave-trade  to 
supply  the  Hova  market. 

The  immigration  of  the  dark-skinned  races 
represented  by  the  Betsileo,  Betsimisaraka,  Saka- 
lava,  etc.,  appears  to  have  been  much  more  an- 


73  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

cient  than  the  Hova.  They  were  the  people  in- 
habiting the  coast  when  the  latter  arrived,  and 
the  similarity  of  the  language,  together  with  some 
community  of  habit  and  custom,  accounts  for  the 
survival  of  the  immigrants  among  a  wild  race. 
It  is  probable  that  the  Hova  incursion  may  have 
originally  consisted  of  but  comparatively  few  in- 
dividuals, perhaps  a  few  hundred,  driven  out 
of  course  by  a  hurricane,  and  conveyed  to  their 
landing-place  by  the  currents,  and  that,  as  is 
still  so  common  among  the  South  Sea  islanders 
in  their  maritime  expeditions,  they  carried  their 
wives  with  them.  That  the  great  distance  they 
must  have  traversed  is  no  argument  against  this 
supposition  is  proved  by  the  known  cases  of  isl- 
ands in  the  Pacific  in  quite  modern  times  being 
peopled  by  those  from  far-distant  places  after 
having  drifted  thousands  of  miles. 

But  the  earlier  inroad  of  the  other  tribes  in 
the  island  must  either  have  taken  place  at  a  very 
remote  period,  or  else  have  been  the  result  of  a 
much  larger  expedition.  The  latter  is  probably 
the  solution,  especially  when  it  is  remembered 
that  the  coast  tribes  have  retained,  to  within  re- 
cent times,  the  love  for  large  expeditions  for. pi- 
ratical and  slave-catching  purposes.  As  late  as 
1816  such  a  piratical  fleet  consisted  of  6,250 
men  in  250  canoes.  In  1805  the  natives,  number- 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  MALAGASY.  79 

ing,  it  is  said,  7,000  men,  overpowered  a  u  Por- 
tuguese corvette  of  14  guns"  sent  against  them 
by  the  authorities  at  Mozambique.  And  now, 
although  these  excursions  have  been  stopped,  the 
people  still  exhibit  their  skill  as  seamen  by  the 
clever  way  they  push  their  canoes  and  boats  over 
the  reefs  and  bars  through  a  high  breaking  surf 
enough  to  terrify  any  but  the  most  adventurous. 

This  we  think  accounts  for  the  populations  of 
Madagascar.  All  have  come  at  different  remote 
times  to  the  island  from  the  east,  and  are  unmis- 
takably of  Malay  origin,  or  rather  from  the  same 
stock  from  which  the  Malays  and  Malayo-Polyne- 
sians  have  sprung.  Of  the  existing  inhabitants, 
the  dark  race  representing  the  Western  Polyne- 
sians immigrated  first  into  Madagascar,  and  drove 
the  original  people  into  the  interior.  The  Hovas 
came  afterwards,  lived  some  time  near  the  coast, 
and  when  powerful  enough  drove  the  Vazimba 
out  of  Imerina  and  settled  there. 

At  the  present  time  a  great  deal  of  European 
admixture  is  evident  among  the  coast  tribes,  es- 
pecially on  the  east;  and  a  considerable  amount 
of  African  and  Arabic  infusion  is  manifest  on  the 
west  and  northwest  coasts.  These  have  to  be 
carefully  taken  into  consideration  in  any  attempt 
to  trace  the  origin  of  the  coast  tribes. 


SO  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ATTEMPTS  TO  COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR  FROM 
1643-1814. 

Earliest  Connection  of  France  with  Madagascar.  Rigault.  Pro- 
mis  and  Foucquenbourg.  Fort  Dauphin.  Description  of 
Products.  French  not  the  Discoverers  of  Madagascar.  Suarez. 
Ruy-Pereira.  Tristan  d'  Acunha.  Emmanuel's  Expeditions 
under  Lopez  de  Figueira  and  Juan  Ferrano.  Dutch  Attempts. 
The  English  Colony  of  1644.  Flacourt,  164S.  French  Ex- 
pelled in  1672.  French  East  India  Company.  St.  Mary,  or 
Nosy  Ibraha.  Count  Beniowsky's  Expedition  and  Adminis- 
tration, 1774-1786.  Bory  de  St.  Vincent,  1S01.  Treaty  of 
Paris.  Contention  of  M.  Lozier  against  Sir  R.  Farquhar. 
French  Attempts  in  1818.  Gourbeyre's  Escapade,  1835.  Ra- 
dama  I.  Subjugates  the  Sakalava. 

The  various  vain  endeavors  which  France 
has  made  to  form  colonies  on  the  island  of  Mada- 
gascar date  from  the  year  1643,  when  the  French 
Eastern  Company  declared  that  it  had  taken  pos- 
session of  it  and  the  adjacent  islands  in  the  name 
of  the  King  of  France.  Captain  Rigault  obtained 
from  the  Due  de  Richelieu  in  1642,  for  himself 
and  his  associates,  the  right  or  monopoly  of  trade 
in  the  islands  in  the  South  Indian  Ocean,  and 
then  to  form  French  colonies,  "which  conces- 
sion was  granted  to  them  for  six  years,  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  others  without  the  consent  of 
the  associates,  who,  to  that  end,  formed  a  com- 


ATTEMPTS  TO  COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR.     8 1 


pany;  and  the  concession  was  confirmed  by  His 
Most  Christian  Majesty,  and  was  registered  at  the 
record  office  of  his  council  of  state  the  following 
year,  confirmed  again  by  His  Majesty  at  present 
reigning. " 

In  March  of  that  year  the  company  sent  a 
vessel,  under  the  command  of  Cocquet,  with 
orders  to  load  with  ebony.  He  was  to  convey 
Messrs.  Promis  and  Foucquenbourg,  their  clerks, 
and  twelve  Frenchmen  to  settle  in  the  island,  and 
there  await  another  vessel  which  was  to  be  des- 
patched from  France  in  the  November  following. 
Cocquet  arrived  off  the  island  about  the  month  of 
September,  and  "in  passing  went  to  the  islands 
of  Mascareigne  and  Diego-Rais,  which  islands 
Promis  took  possession  of  in  the  name  of  his  most 
Christian  Majesty."  These  navigators  appear  to 
have  explored  the  island  of  St.  Mary,  on  the  east 
coast  of  Madagascar,  and  to  have  entered  Anton- 
gil  Bay.  But  no  attempt  was  then  made  to  set- 
tle there.  Promis  and  Foucquenbourg  fixed  upon 
the  bay  or  "Port  of  Sainte-Luce  named  Mangha- 
fia  in  Lat.  24°  30'  south,"  as  a  spot  suitable  for 
their  purpose  of  forming  a  French  colony. 

This  is  the  first  record  we  have  of  any  body  of 
Frenchmen  landing  in  Madagascar.  Unfortu- 
nately for  the  success  of  the  expedition,  it  arrived 
at  the  commencement  of  the  hot  and  rainy  sea- 


82 


MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


son,  and  chose  a  spot  low  and  marshy,  and  there- 
fore a  hot-bed  of  malarial  fever.  Soon  discover- 
ing the  nature  of  the  place  which  they  had  in- 
tended to  make  their  home,  the  young  colonists 
were  compelled  to  seek  a  more  healthy  spot  on 
which  to  establish  themselves.  Travelling  a 
little  distance  along  the  coast,  a  selection  was 
made  of  a  piece  of  land  at  the  northern  point  of  a 
rocky  and  hilly  peninsula,  in  the  province  of 
Anosy.  Here  Fort  Dauphin  was  built,  and  nature 
seemed  to  offer  every  encouragement  to  the  stran- 
gers, who  found  themselves  in  a  fine,  salubrious 
climate,  the  air  cooled  by  the  southeast  sea  breeze, 
and  yet  outside  the  range  of  the  much-dreaded 
cyclones  of  the  central  Indian  Ocean. 

The  district  around  Fort  Dauphin  is  said  to  be 
a  country  extremely  rich  in  vegetation  and  con- 
taining an  abundance  of  useful  animals.  "The 
bullocks  are  not  so  numerous,  but  they  are  of  finer 
quality  than  those  found  in  the  northern  parts  of 
the  island;  the  sheep,  with  their  large,  fat  tails, 
that  are  looked  upon  as  the  most  delicate  part  of 
the  animals,  and  goats  are  plentiful."  Pigs,  both 
domestic  and  wild,  are  abundant.  The  latter  in- 
habit the  forest  lands,  but  prey  upon  the  planta- 
tions of  the  natives  to  such  an  extent  that  they 
become  a  dreaded  plague,  and  various  devices 
have  been  employed  to  destroy  these  depreda- 


ATTEMPTS  TO  COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR.  83 

tors.  They  are  hunted  with  dogs  trained  for  the 
purpose,  and  pits  are  dug  in  their  haunts,  hav- 
ing sharpened  stakes  projecting  from  the  bottom 
and  the  mouths  hidden  by  rushes  carefully  con- 
cealed by  earth.  The  flesh  of  these  wild  hogs  is 
hard,  but  well-flavored;  they  have  a  peculiarly 
long  snout,  and  are  covered  with  dark,  reddish- 
brown  hair.  Poultry — turkeys,  geese,  ducks,  and 
fowls — is  both  abundant  and  very  cheap,  and  quails 
and  wild  fowl  are  met  with  in  great  numbers  in 
the  grassy  plains  and  marshes.  The  rivers  and 
the  bay  abound  in  fish  of  various  kinds,  and  oys- 
ters of  excellent  quality  are  found  on  the  rocks. 

Various  kinds  of  vegetables  are  cultivated  by 
the  people  with  comparatively  little  expenditure 
of  labor.  Rice  of  different  kinds  forms  the  staple 
article  of  consumption,  while  manioc,  the  sweet 
potato,  yams,  and  the  arum  beans,  and  earth-nuts 
are  among  the  articles  cultivated  to  increase  and 
vary  the  food  supply.  There  is  also  a  fair  variety 
of  fruit  trees:  the  orange,  citron,  lemon,  bibas,  and 
banana  are  found  around  every  village.  Cotton, 
ginger,  and  tobacco  are  also  raised,  and  are  said 
to  be  of  excellent  quality.  Wild  honey  is  gath- 
ered in  the  forests,  where  the  numerous  flowering 
shrubs  and  plants  attract  large  quantities  of  bees, 
which  make  their  homes  in  the  hollow  trees  and 
in  the  crevices  of  the  rocks.    Great  quantities  of 


84  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

silkworms  are  also  reared  in  this  part  of  trie  isl- 
and, of  a  species  entirely  different  from  that  gen- 
erally recognized  under  that  name  in  England, 
but  which  produces  silk  of  a  fine  quality,  though 
rather  dull-looking,  and  lacking  the  peculiar 
glossy  texture  of  that  from  the  Chinese  worm. 
The  silk,  dyed  with  native  dyes  obtained  from 
various  plants  native  to  the  country — indigo,  tur- 
meric, logwood,  nato,  etc. — is  spun  and  woven 
into  lambas  of  considerable  beauty  and  value. 
The  forests  supply  a  large  variety  of  valuable 
woods  for  cabinet-making,  some  useful  fibres,  and 
excellent  gum.  Such  is  the  character  of  the 
country  around  the  spot  which  still  bears  the 
name  its  first  founders  gave  it,  Fort  Dauphin,  or 
Farodofay  in  Malagasy — a  spot  having  so  many 
natural  advantages  that  the  wonder  is  that  it  ever 
passed  out  of  the  hands  of  the  French,  who  if 
they  had  any  genius  for  colonization  must  have 
recognized  the  value  of  such  a  post. 

But  it  must  not  be  imagined  that  the  French 
were  the  discoverers  of  Madagascar.  As  far  as 
existing  documents  give  us  the  means  of  judging 
it  would  appear  that  Fernando  Suarez  landed  in 
1506,  and  seems  to  have  founded  some  trading 
stations  for  Portuguese  enterprise.  Doubtless  the 
island  was  known  to  the  Portuguese  before  the 
above  date,  for  it  seems  incredible  that  their  nav- 


ATTEMPTS  TO  COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR.  85 

igators  could  have  made  the  frequent  voyages  to 
India,  after  the  rounding  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  by  Vasco  de  Gama  in  1497,  without  sight- 
ing the  land  lying  to  the  east  as  they  hugged  the 
eastern  coast  of  Africa.  A  few  months  after  this 
discovery,  and  without  any  communication  re- 
garding it,  another  Portuguese  navigator  was 
driven  by  stress  of  weather  to  its  shores.  A  ves- 
sel under  the  command  of  Ruy-Pereira  was  sepa- 
rated in  a  storm  from  the  fleet  of  Tristan  d'Acu- 
nha  and  borne  to  the  west  coast  of  the  island. 
So  struck  was  the  captain  with  the  beauty  and 
fertility  of  every  part  of  the  island  which  he  saw 
that  he  sailed  immediately  for  Mozambique,  ho- 
ping there  to  meet  his  chief  and  induce  him  to 
visit  and  take  possession  of  the  newly-discovered 
land,  which  he  had  been  assured  was  rich  in  spi- 
ces and  other  valuable  products.  It  appears  that 
Tristan  d'Acunha  not  only  visited  the  west  coast, 
but  remained  there  sufficiently  long  to  obtain  a 
fairly  accurate  idea  of  the  manners  and  customs 
of  the  people,  and  to  construct  a  chart  of  the  coast- 
line at  the  same  time  that  Suarez  was  engaged  in 
similar  work  on  the  east  coast.  It  is  doubtless 
owing  to  the  care  which  the  former  bestowed 
upon  endeavoring  to  represent  the  contour  of  the 
island,  as  far  as  his  observations  went  and  the  im- 
perfect nature  of  the  instruments  at  his  command 


86 


MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


permitted,  that  his  name  is  the  only  one  to  which 
the  honor  of  first  discovery  was  given,  whereas  it 
is  beyond  all  doubt  that  F.  Suarez  had  seen  and 
partly  configured  the  east  coast  some  months  pre- 
viously. 

The  king,  Emmanuel,  at  a  subsequent  date 
sent  another  expedition,  under  Jacques  L,opez  de 
Figueira,  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  the  country 
was  really  so  rich  in  spices  and  silver  as  it  was 
popularly  believed  to  be.  Although  ginger  was 
found  to  be  tolerably  abundant,  we  read  nothing 
of  other  spices  nor  of  silver,  and  the  expedition 
may  be  said  to  have  entirely  disappointed  the 
sanguine  navigators  who  entered  into  it.  Hence, 
with  the  evident  intention  of  conclusively  ascer- 
taining the  nature  of  the  island  and  its  products, 
its  inhabitants  and  their  manners,  another  fleet 
was  sent  under  the  command  of  Juan  Ferrano. 
His  commission  was  to  go  and  obtain  as  clear  a 
knowledge  of  the  country  and  its  resources  as 
possible,  and  if  necessary  to  make  such  treaties  as 
would  secure  to  Portugal  the  commerce  of  the 
island.  Some  ports  were  formed  for  this  purpose 
and  a  trade  was  established,  but  with  the  excep- 
tion of  that  in  slaves  to  the  Arabs  on  the  north- 
west coast,  very  little  seems  to  have  been  done. 
An  effort  was  also  made  to  introduce  Christianity 
among  the  natives,  but  this  mission  seems  to  have 


ATTEMPTS  TO  COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR.  87 

been  abortive  and  to  have  ended  in  the  massacre 
of  the  missionaries.  When  the  Portuguese  finally 
left  the  west  coast  is  not  clear,  but  no  effort  was 
made  to  secure  the  permanent  possession  of  the 
island. 

In  a  like  manner  the  Dutch  subsequently 
opened  a  trade  with  Madagascar,  and  established 
a  few  trading  stations,  but  their  connection  with 
the  island  was  of  short  duration. 

A  disastrous  attempt  was  made  in  1644  to 
found  an  English  colony  in  St.  Augustin's  Bay, 
on  the  southwest  coast,  a  spot  particularly  attrac- 
tive to  the  stranger  on  account  of  its  fine  anchor- 
age and  good  river  communication  with  the  inte- 
rior. These  points,  taken  in  conjunction  with 
the  evident  fertility  of  the  district,  as  exhibited 
by  the  rank  growth  on  every  hand,  were  sure  to 
influence  those  who  were  seeking  a  home  in  a 
new  land.  But  the  spot  was  so  unhealthy  that 
few  ever  left  their  adopted  home;  and  the  num- 
ber of  graves  in  the  cemetery  alone  close  by  the 
fort,  as  recorded  by  some  Frenchmen  of  the  Pro- 
mis-Foucquenbourg  expedition,  show  how  deadly 
the  climate  was  and  what  havoc  it  made  among 
the  band  of  hardy  colonists.* 

*  M.  E.  de  Flacourt,  speaking  of  this  affair,  says,  "  The  river 
Youghelade  is  a  river  as  large  as  the  Loire,  descending  in  a  west- 
southwest  direction  from  the  mountains  of  Manambola  ;  and  after 
flowing  a  distance  of  twelve  or  fifteen  days'  journey,  it  falls  into 


83 


MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


From  the  time  of  Flacourt,  who  in  1648  suc- 
ceeded Prom  is,  and  who  by  his  intelligence  and 
energy  has  earned  a  well-deserved  fame  among 
the  adventurers  to  Madagascar,  the  endeavors  of 
France  to  establish  a  colony  in  the  island  are  a 
series  of  the  most  miserable  failures.  Harshness 
and  brutality  towards  the  natives,  whom  they 
never  made  the  slightest  attempt  to  conciliate, 
even  supplying  their  own  necessities  by  turning 
marauders  and  pillaging  from  the  unoffending 
villagers  in  their  vicinity,  and  constant  quarrel- 
ling among  themselves,  characterized  these  early 
abortive  attempts  on  the  Grande  ilc.  Governors 
were  appointed  in  rapid  succession,  but  they  were 
only  distinguished  by  their  utter  incapacity,  their 
spirit  of  rivalry,  and  their  want  of  discipline,  each 
allowing  the  posts  to  sink  deeper  and  deeper  into 
the  mire  of  insubordination  and  disorder,  while 
no  effort  was  made  by  any  quietly  to  extend  the 

the  magnificent  bay,  called  by  the  Portuguese  St.  Augustin  Bay,  in 
•which  large  vessels  were  ordinarily  anchored.  About  the  year 
1644  an  English  vessel  disembarked  400  men,  where  they  found 
an  earthwork  built  long  before  by  the  companions  of  Francois 
Picard.  Three  or  four  years  later,  twenty-two  Frenchmen,  hoping 
to  find  an  English  vessel  bound  for  Europe,  arrived  there  from 
Fort  Dauphin,  but  they  failed  to  discover  a  single  inhabitant. 
There  was  a  fort  and  a  cemetery,  in  which  it  appeared  that  more 
than  300  had  been  interred.  They  were  informed  by  a  chief 
named  Dian-Maye,  who  contracted  for  the  supply  of  bullocks  for 
English  vessels,  that  the  captain  had  died  of  fever  (de  maladie) 
with  most  of  his  men,  and  that  a  vessel  had  taken  off  the  re- 
mainder." 


ATTEMPTS  TO  COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR  89 

influence  of  France  over  the  surrounding  country. 
At  the  same  time  it  is  asserted  by  French  writers 
that  such  was  the  lukewarmness  or  half-hearted- 
ness  of  the  French  Government  that  every  expe- 
dition arrived  on  the  coast  at  the  most  unhealthy 
season,  causing  an  immense  sacrifice  of  life  and  a 
feeling  of  discontent  and  dissatisfaction  on  the 
part  of  the  survivors. 

Such  being  the  character  of  the  first  attempts 
at  colonization,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  na- 
tives were  led  to  unite  in  driving  these  unwel- 
come visitors  from  their  shores.  So  in  1672  the 
French  at  Fort  Dauphin  found  themselves  com- 
pelled, by  the  patient  and  long-enduring  natives, 
to  take  refuge  in  a  vessel  which  happened  then  to 
be  lying  at  anchor  in  the  bay.  "Thus,"  says  a 
French  writer,  "the  fine  colony  founded  by  the 
French  Eastern  Company  was  completely  ruined. ' ' 
And  although  Louis  XIV.  found  too  much  to 
employ  his  time  and  talents  in  the  management 
of  his  own  kingdom  to  send  another  expedition 
to  Madagascar,  yet  the  island*  was  declared  to  be 
a  possession  of  the  Crown  of  France ;  and  this 
weak-minded  declaration  of  sovereignty  was  actu- 
ally confirmed  in  subsequent  years,  and  still  ex- 
ists, so  it  is  said,  in  the  archives  of  the  Admiralty. 
This  constitutes,  it  may  be  presumed,  the  ancient 

*  Called  then  the  lie  Saint  Laurent. 

6 


90  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

rights  of  France,  of  which  we  have  recently  heard 
so  much  in  the  French  papers  and  periodicals. 

In  Louis  XV.' s  reign  another  determined  effort 
was  made  to  gain  a  footing  in  the  island  and  re- 
establish the  old  trading  stations.  In  1733  a  visit 
for  the  purpose  of  surveying  the  northeast  coast 
was  made,  and  in  1746  Labourdonnais  surveyed 
the  Bay  of  Antongil  on  the  east  coast;  and  in 
1750  the  French  East  India  Company  gained  pos- 
session of  the  island  of  St.  Mary,  or  Nosy  Ibraha, 
the  largest  off  the  coast  of  Madagascar.  This  the 
French  still  retain. 

The  island  of  St.  Mary*  is  separated  from  the 
east  coast  of  Madagascar  by  a  channel  about 
three  miles  in  width  at  its  narrowest  point  off 
Point  L,aree.  The  centre  of  the  island  is  situ- 
ated in  latitude  160  45'  south  and  460  15'  lon- 
gitude east  of  Paris.  It  is  about  thirty  miles 
long,  from  five  to  eight  miles  wide,  and  has  a 
coast-line  of  over  sixty-two  miles,  with  an  area 
of  about  224,568  acres.  An  arm  of  the  sea  trav- 
erses the  island  towards  the  south,  forming  the 
islet,  which  has  a  circumference  of  five  miles. 
The  chain  of  reefs  which  surround  it  is  broken 
here  and  there  by  passages  forming  practicable 
openings  for  the  entrance  of  vessels.    The  chan- 

*  The  following  description  is  obtained  from  "  Not.  statistique 
sur  les  possessions  francaises  a  Madagascar."    Imp.  Roy.  1840. 


ATTEMPTS  TO  COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR.  91 

nel  which  divides  the  island  from  the  mainland 
is  nothing  but  a  vast,  sure  harbor  with  a  safe 
anchorage.  The  principal  bay  in  the  island  is 
Port  Louis,  which  is  formed  by  a  breaking  down 
of  the  land  two  thousand  yards  in  length  and  a 
thousand  in  width.  In  the  centre  of  the  bay  is  a 
small  island,  called  by  the  French,  He  Madame, 
and  by  the  natives  Lonquez,  having  a  length  of 
three  hundred  yards  by  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  yards  at  its  greatest  breadth.  This  island, 
defended  by  fortifications  and  armed  by  batteries, 
contains  the  Government  stores,  armory,  dock- 
yards, and  barracks.  To  the  southeast  of  this  is 
another  small  island,  which  forms  the  head  of  a 
pier  that  was  built  in  1832.  The  passage  on  the 
northeast  of  the  former  island  is  deep,  and  suffi- 
ciently large  to  admit  the  largest  vessels. 

There  are  several  other  anchorages  at  other 
points  on  the  east  coast  of  St.  Mary,  among  which 
may  be  noticed  the  Bay  of  Lokensy,  that  faces 
the  port  of  Tintingue.  The  coast  of  St.  Mary  is 
not  precipitous;  in  one  or  two  places  only  are 
there  basaltic  capes,  but  the  remainder  of  the  coast 
presents  a  sandy  beach  covered  with  beautiful 
verdure.  At  first  sight  the  island  appears  to  con- 
sist of  an  infinite  number  of  small  detached  hil- 
locks, but  on  closer  acquaintance  it  is  found  to 
contain  several  distinct  chains  of  hills,  composed 


93  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

partly  of  basalt  (?)  and  partly  of  tufa,  in  some 
red  and  others  yellow,  covered  with  sand  and 
quartz.  The  soil  of  the  island  is,  generally  speak- 
ing, poor,  except  a  narrow  zone  in  the  centre, 
comprising  about  a  fifth  part  of  the  area.  This  is 
the  only  part  regularly  cultivated  by  the  natives, 
and  is  owned  entirely  by  them.  The  heat  and 
moisture  of  the  climate  appear  highly  favorable 
to  the  cultivation  of  all  tropical  products,  except 
perhaps  cotton.  The  island  abounds  in  iron,  and 
there  are  plenty  of  building  materials,  such  as 
stone,  lime,  and  clay  suitable  for  brick  and  tile 
making.  Various  kinds  of  valuable  wood  are  also 
abundant,  such  as  the  voamboana,  nato,  atafana, 
filao,  and  many  others  of  less  value,  while  the  un- 
dergrowth and  stunted  bushes  extend  to  the  sea- 
beach.  There  is  a  good  supply  of  water  of  ex- 
cellent quality,  which  forms  streams  sufficiently 
large  to  be  utilized  as  a  motor  for  saw-mills,  and 
these  are  seldom  dry.  In  some  parts  of  the  isl- 
and the  streams  form  large  marshes;  but  it  is 
stated  that  these  can,  with  but  little  expense  and 
labor,  be  drained. 

The  natives  occupy  houses  of  wood  covered 
with  thatch  made  from  the  travellers' -tree  leaves. 
These  are  small,  but  well  made,  and  resemble 
those  inhabited  by  the  foreigners  established  on 
the  island.    There  are  thirty-two  villages  in  the 


ATTEMPTS  TO  COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR.  93 

various  parts  of  the  district,  approached  by  the 
rudest  of  footpaths,  which  pass  over  rocks  and 
through  marshes  without  any  consideration  for 
the  comfort  of  the  traveller. 

The  Isle  of  St.  Mary  is  considered  one  of  the 
countries  of  the  globe  in  which  the  rainfall  is 
greatly  above  the  average.  Rain  falls  on  220  to 
240  days  each  year. 

This  island  was  the  only  spot  of  land  in  or 
near  Madagascar  owned  by  the  French  till  the 
year  1774,  in  the  face  of  the  grandiloquent  proc- 
lamations made  after  1672  by  Louis  XIV.  These 
sounded  well  in  French  ears,  but  meant  no  more 
than  do  the  present  enigmatical  phrases  so  fre- 
quently seen  in  French  newspapers,  of  "French 
ancient  rights"  to  Madagascar,  or  the  "just 
claims ' '  of  France  to  the  best  portions  of  the 
island ;  phrases  fitted  to  catch  the  popular  ear,  but 
unable  to  bear  the  light  of  sober  reflection  and 
even  a  very  cursory  research. 

In  1774  an  establishment  was  formed  in  the 
Bay  of  Antongil  by  Count  Benyowski,  the  only 
man  who  ever  gave  promise  of  an  ability  to  or- 
ganize and  govern  a  French  colony  in  Madagas- 
car, but  who,  from  jealousy  on  the  part  of  those 
in  authority,  was  thwarted  in  his  honest  endeavors, 
and  eventually  killed  in  his  attempt  to  maintain 
his  position.    Beniowski,  or  Benyowski,  was  a 


94  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

Polish  count,  who,  after  serving  under  the  Em- 
peror of  Austria  during  the  Seven  Years'  War  as 
a  lieutenant,  visited  Holland  and  England,  pro- 
fessedly to  gain  some  knowledge  of  shipbuilding 
and  the  art  of  navigation.    On  his  return  to  Po- 
land he  was  appointed  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
Confederation  of  Bar  in  1768,  and  after  proving 
successful  in  several  engagements  with  the  Rus- 
sians, he  was  eventually  taken  prisoner  and  sen- 
tenced to  banishment  to  Siberia  in  1769.  Having 
rendered  some  personal  service  to  Nilof,  the  gov- 
ernor, the  rigor  of  his  confinement  was  somewhat 
relaxed,  for  we  find  that  he  was  appointed  tutor 
to  the  governor's  children  and  that  he  married 
his  master's  daughter.    He  used  his  greater  free- 
dom in  arranging  a  daring  scheme  for  securing 
his  own  liberty  and  that  of  sixty  or  seventy  of 
his  companions  in  exile.    This  was  achieved  in 
1 771  by  taking  possession  of  a  Russian  sloop-of- 
war  lying  off  Kamtschatka,  and  setting  sail  to 
Japan;  from  thence  he  passed  on  to  Formosa,  to 
Macao,  where  his  wife  died,  to  India,  and  subse- 
quently in  a  merchant  vessel  to  Mauritius,  where 
he  met  with  anything  but  a  warm  reception  from 
those  in  authority,  and  where  he  found  that  his 
plans  regarding  Madagascar  were  frowned  upon 
by  the  governor,  and  himself  regarded  as  a  dan- 
gerous adventurer. 


ATTEMPTS  TO  COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR.  95 

Finding  no  encouragement  in  the  Isle  of 
France,  Benyowski  went  to  headquarters,  and 
his  schemes  were  looked  upon  favorably  by  the 
Due  d'Aiguillon,  an  enthusiast  on  the  subject  of 
colonial  aggrandizement.  A  commission  was 
granted  to  the  count  to  found  colonies  for  France 
in  Madagascar;  but  the  elements  of  trouble  and 
failure  were  introduced  into  the  patent  by  the 
stipulation  that  the  necessary  supplies  should  be 
sent  from  Mauritius,  and  Benyowski  should  sub- 
ordinate himself  and  his  plans  to  the  Governor  of 
Mauritius.  The  count  appears  to  have  remon- 
strated against  the  injustice  of  thus  making  his 
success  altogether  dependent  upon  the  good-will 
of  those  who  had  already  shown  strong  opposition 
to  him.  But  no  change  could  be  effected,  and  he 
was  compelled  to  accept  the  position,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  eventual  defeat  of  his  plans  and  his 
own  death. 

He  returned  to  Mauritius  in  the  latter  part  of 
1773  and  found  that  all  his  fears  of  opposition 
from  the  Government  of  that  colony  were  likely 
to  be  more  than  realized.  So  miserably  had  all 
previous  attempts  on  Madagascar  by  the  French 
been  mismanaged  that  the  Governor  of  Mauritius, 
De  Tournay  by  name,  considered  the  prospects  of 
his  own  island  endangered  by  the  expedition  of 
the  count,  which  would  prove  abortive  also,  be- 


96  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

cause,  ( ( the  people  of  Madagascar,  having  for  one 
hundred  and  fifty  years  repelled  all  the  attempts 
of  France,  they  would  not  submit  at  this  moment 
when  they  were  united  under  a  solid  government 
formed  by  themselves." 

Before  rendering  any  aid  to  Benyowski,  De 
Tournay  determined  to  appeal  to  the  Home  Gov- 
ernment; but  the  former  was  far  too  resolute  and 
decided  a  man  to  brook  such  delay.  He  accord- 
ingly sent  over  a  part  of  his  expedition  in  Decem- 
ber, 1773,  to  contract  with  the  chiefs  and  make 
conciliatory  terms  with  such  as  were  willing  to 
receive  them.  Meanwhile  he  was  detained  in 
Mauritius  by  various  difficulties — the  defection  of 
some  of  his  men,  the  sickness  of  his  officers,  and 
the  dilatoriness  of  the  authorities;  while  not  only 
was  he  treated  contemptuously  by  the  governor, 
but,  according  to  his  memoirs,  messages  were  sent 
to  the  chiefs  in  Madagascar  discrediting  him,  and 
cautioning:  them  of  his  intention  to  reduce  the 
whole  island  to  slavery. 

Hence,  upon  his  arrival  in  Antongil  Bay  in 
June,  1774,  the  count  found  a  great  number  of 
people  prepared  to  meet  him;  but  he  appears  to 
have  acted  in  a  wise  and  judicious  manner  in  en- 
deavoring to  favorably  impress  the  natives  with 
the  objects  of  his  expedition.  He  made  treaties 
of  alliance  with  the  chiefs,  who  were  quite  willing 


ATTEMPTS  TO  COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR.  97 

to  allow  him  to  settle  in  the  country  and  build  a 
town,  so  long  as  no  kind  of  fortress  was  erected. 
They  were  doubtless  led  to  this  by  their  knowl- 
edge of  the  actions  of  former  settlers;  and  Ben- 
yowski  showed  his  wisdom  and  his  extensive 
knowledge  of  mankind  in  acceding  to  these  con- 
ditions and  so  conducting  his  little  settlement  as 
to  produce  a  sense  of  confidence  in  the  minds  of 
the  adjacent  chieftains. 

Having  secured  the  tranquillity  of  Louisbourg, 
the  town  he  had  built,  an  effort  was  made  to  ex- 
tend his  influence  into  the  interior  and  towards 
the  south  by  sending  trusted  messengers  with  in- 
terpreters to  reason  with  the  chiefs  and  to  con- 
vince them  of  the  advantages  of  trade;  while  at 
the  same  time  a  great  deal  of  useful  information 
respecting  the  character  of  the  country,  the  habits 
•  and  numbers  of  the  people,  was  collected  for  the 
future  use  of  the  count,  or  u  Governor, "  as  he  was 
thenceforward  styled.  The  reports  brought  in  en- 
abled him  to  build  and  fortify  various  posts  along 
the  coast — at  Ivongo,  Ngontsy,  Fenoarivo,  Tam- 
atave,  and  Foule  Point,  as  well  as  a  sanatorium 
for  his  invalids  on  the  higher  land  at  a  distance 
from  the  malaria  of  the  marshes  which  surround 
Louisbourg  or  Maroantsetra. 

Owing  to  his  indefatigable  activity  his  author- 
ity quickly  extended  to  all  the  people  with  whom 


98  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

lie  came  in  contact,  and  treaties  of  peace  and  alli- 
ance were  made  with,  the  chiefs.  Still  he  was 
surrounded  with  trouble,  for  not  only  were  many 
of  his  followers  suffering  from  the  fever  of  the 
country,  but  he  also  found  that  the  pusillanimous 
jealousy  of  the  Government  in  Mauritius  had 
prompted  them  to  withhold  the  necessary  sup- 
plies. Representations  of  the  distress  thus  occa- 
sioned were  made  to  their  fellow-countrymen 
without  meeting  with  any  response,  and  Ben- 
yowski  was  at  last  forced  to  apply  to  France  for 
relief.  Meanwhile  it  appears,  from  the  memoirs 
of  the  count,  that  efforts  were  made  by  the  Gov- 
ernor of  Mauritius  to  stir  up  disaffection  among 
the  friendly  tribes;  and  he  even  sent  over  some 
men,  a  supercargo,  storekeeper,  and  some  clerks, 
with  no  good  intention  towards  the  infant  colony. 
A  few  days  after  their  arrival  they  were  discov- 
ered in  acts  evidently  intended  to  compromise  the 
settlement,  and  one  man  even  wTent  so  far  as  to 
say  he  had  authority  to  take  possession  of  the 
governor's  effects  and  papers  in  case  of  his  death. 
It  required  the  greatest  fortitude  and  wisdom  on 
the  part  of  Benyowski  to  prevent  the  destruction 
of  the  settlement,  and  there  appears  reason  to  fear 
that,  but  for  the  faithfulness  of  his  officers,  he 
must  have  fallen  a  victim  to  the  machinations  of 
these  emissaries  of  prejudiced  officials. 


ATTEMPTS  TO  COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR.  99 

On  more  than  one  occasion  the  Sakalava  com- 
bined in  an  attempt  to  exterminate  the  foreigners, 
but  were  totally  unsuccessful,  so  powerful  was  the 
alliance  between  the  French  and  the  tribes  ad- 
joining their  posts.  Just  after  one  of  the  success- 
ful expeditions  against  the  Sakalava,  who  had 
approached  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  forest, 
Benyowski  received  despatches  from  France  in 
answer  to  his  application  of  over  two  years  pre- 
viously; but,  unfortunately,  although  the  French 
Government  showed  itself  sufficiently  interested 
in  its  subjects  to  freight  a  vessel  with  stores  and 
ammunition,  yet  the  count  received  instructions 
to  confine  himself  to  the  defence  of  the  positions 
he  had  gained,  and  not  strive  to  push  farther 
afield,  as  there  was  a  feeling  of  uncertainty  on 
the  part  of  the  Government  as  to  the  desirability 
of  forming  a  permanent  colony  in  Madagascar. 
Further,  he  learned  by  later  letters  in  the  mail 
that  the  vessel  carrying  the  much-needed  supplies 
had  been  wrecked  on  the  south  coast. 

Taking  these  matters  into  consideration  the 
count  determined  at  once  to  return  to  Louisbourg 
and  not  push  his  advantage  against  the  Sakalava. 
But  he  found  it  very  difficult  to  dismiss  his  allies, 
as  they  said  they  would  not  desert  him,  having 
heard  that  he  was  to  be  taken  away  to  be  tried  in 
France.     This  was  not  the  only  cause  for  their 


IOO  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


unwillingness  to  depart,  as  became  apparent  soon 
after  the  count's  return  from  the  west.  A  feeling 
had  been  gaining  ground  among  the  natives  that 
the  governor  was  the  lineal  descendant  of  Ramini, 
the  last  sovereign  of  Mananara.  This  report  had 
arisen  from  the  declaration  of  a  slave,  Suzanne, 
whom  Benyowski  had  brought  over  with  him 
from  Mauritius,  who  declared  that  he  was  the 
son  of  Ramini's  daughter,  who  had  been  taken 
away  captive  with  her  and  sold  as  a  slave  in 
Mauritius.  These  declarations  had  been  gaining 
favor  with  the  people,  and  so  great  was  the  respect 
for  Benyowski  that  even  Rafangoro,  the  reigning 
chief,  agreed  to  abdicate  in  his  favor.  The  count 
thought  that c '  the  urgent  crisis  in  his  own  affairs, 
deserted  as  he  was  by  every  friend  except  such  as 
he  could  obtain  in  a  barbarous  nation,  rendered  it 
justifiable  to  avail  himself  of  this  and  many  other 
superstitious  notions  of  the  natives  tending  to 
point  him  out  as  the  possessor  of  this  vacant 
chieftainship.  The  belief  appeared  to  be  gaining 
ground  at  the  very  time  when  the  affairs  of  the 
colony  rendered  it  a  great  temptation  to  the  count 
to  take  advantage  of  it."  Hence  it  is  not  sur- 
prising, when  three  of  the  most  powerful  chiefs 
waited  upon  him  to  instal  him  as  one  of  their 
number,  that  even  the  pain  of  breaking  away 
from  his  appointment  under  the  French  king  did 


ATTEMPTS  TO  COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR.  103 

not  weigh  very  heavily  with  him  against  the  po- 
sition of  influence  he  would  gain  by  the  accept- 
ance of  the  proffered  honor ;  more  especially  as 
three  officers  and  fifty  soldiers  revolted  just  at  this 
time  against  the  underhanded  intrigues  of  the 
Governor  of  Mauritius,  and  declared  they  desired 
to  join  their  fortunes  for  ever  with  Benyowski, 
from  whom  they  would  never  separate. 

Having  received  his  acceptance  of  the  offer, 
the  chiefs  retired  to  make  arrangements  for  the 
public  ceremony;  and  on  the  following  day,  Sep- 
tember 16,  1777,  a  great  kabary  was  held,  when 
Benyowski  was  publicly  proclaimed  to  be  the 
ampasakabe,  or  chief  king  of  the  district.  The 
heads  of  the  people,  on  their  behalf  and  in  their 
name,  swore  fealty  to  the  new  king,  and  gave  as- 
surance of  their  fidelity  and  confidence.  The 
governor  replied,  saying  "he  should  endeavor 
to  establish  a  government  on  a  firm  foundation, 
and  to  promote  the  happiness  of  the  people,  by 
introducing  all  the  arts  of  civilization  and  a  sys- 
tem of  just  laws." 

The  people  insisted  upon  one  point,  viz.,  that 
their  new  king  should  separate  himself  entirely 
from  France,  and  asked  him  where  he  wished 
them  to  build  his  capital.  He  replied  that  al- 
though it  was  his  intention  to  break  wTith  France, 
yet  it  was  necessary  that  he  should  be  at  hand  to 


104  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

meet  the  French  commission  which  was  then  on 
its  way  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  the  colony. 
The  commissioners  arrived  on  September  21,  and 
made  a  complete  examination  of  the  posts,  the 
forts,  the  servants,  and  officers;  and  five  days 
after  landing  they  held  a  meeting  with  the  peo- 
ple for  the  purpose  of  a  complete  investigation 
into  the  character  of  the  administration  of  the 
governor.  The  result  was  that  a  certificate  was 
presented  to  him,  upon  his  resignation  of  his 
office  into  the  hands  of  the  commission,  attesting 
to  the  perfect  regularity  of  his  conduct  of  the 
colony  and  clearing  his  character  from  the  asper- 
sions of  his  enemies. 

On  September  29  the  commissioners  reem- 
barked.  But  notwithstanding  that  he  had  re- 
signed his  office  under  the  French  king,  yet  he 
consented  again  to  act  as  head  of  the  establish- 
ment, at  the  earnest  request  of  the  soldiers  and 
the  officers  next  in  command  to  himself;  but  at 
the  same  time  he  protested  that  such  action  must 
not  be  looked  upon  as  a  return  to  his  former 
standing  in  the  French  service,  for  this  he  had 
positively  renounced. 

On  October  12  an  imposing  ceremony,  invest- 
ing Benyowski  with  his  kingly  authority,  took 
place.  The  natives,  to  the  number  of  30,000, 
had  assembled  to  take  the  oath  of  blood  and  hear 


ATTEMPTS  TO  COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR.  105 

the  address  of  trie  sovereign.  The  oath  of  blood 
is  performed  in  the  following  way.  A  native 
cooking-pot  is  partly  filled  with  water,  into  which 
is  put  a  collection  of  various  articles,  such  as  a 
bullet,  a  flint  from  a  gun,  a  little  powder,  some 
rice  in  the  husk,  etc.  Two  spears  are  then  pro- 
cured, one  of  which  is  held  upright  in  the  vessel 
while  the  other  is  used  to  strike  the  former  while 
pronouncing  the  words  of  the  oath  calling  down 
the  most  frightful  maledictions  upon  the  one  sub- 
scribing to  it  if  unfaithful  to  its  terms.  Then  a 
small  incision  is  made  under  the  breast  of  each 
contracting  party,  and  a  drop  of  the  blood  is 
caught  upon  a  piece  of  ginger,  which  is  eaten  by 
the  other.  A  small  quantity  of  the  water  from 
the  cooking-pot  is  also  handed  to  each  in  a  leaf 
and  drunk.  * 

It  appears  from  the  memoirs  that  the  people 
took  the  oath  of  sacrifice  also,  which  consists  in 
the  slaughtering  of  a  bullock,  and  each  contract- 
ing party  taking  a  little  of  the  blood,  while  re- 

•  In  the  above  I  have  taken  M.  L.  de  Lacombe's  description. 
Grandidier  went  through  the  same  ceremony,  which  differed  only 
in  minor  points.  Benyowski  said  that  each  sucked  the  blood  of 
the  other.  I  was  asked  to  make  myself  the  brother  of  Ratsian- 
draofana  by  the  oath  of  blood,  when  I  was  told  that  a  small  piece 
of  the  flesh  was  taken  from  each  and  swallowed  by  the  other.  I, 
however,  thought  it  more  dignified  to  tell  the  king  that  an  English- 
man's "yes  or  no"  was  as  powerful  a  bond  as  the  fdta-dra,  or 
"  bond  of  blood."  For  other  variations  in  this  ceremonial,  see  the 
"  Great  African  Island,"  Sibree,  pp.  223-225. 


106  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

peating  imprecations  against  himself  and  his  chil- 
dren if  they  should  prove  unfaithful  to  their  oath. 
The  women  also  came  and  took  the  oath  to  obey 
the  countess  (who  had  arrived  from  Hungary), 
and  to  defer  to  her  in  all  their  quarrels. 

Benyowski  set  about  vigorously  to  establish  a 
settled  form  of  government,  which  was  to  have 
been  partly  of  a  representative  character,  consist- 
ing of  two  councils:  one  containing  thirty-two 
of  the  principal  chiefs  to  form  a  kind  of  privy 
council  to  assist  the  count  and  watch  over  the 
welfare  of  the  state;  the  other  to  be  composed  of 
the  provincial  governors  and  their  councils. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  if  he  had  been  allowed  to 
carry  out  his  plans,  which  met  with  the  entire 
approval  of  the  chiefs,  the  history  of  Madagas- 
car would  have  been  widely  different  and  its 
condition  far  more  prosperous. 

But  strange  as  it  may  seem,  two  months  after 
these  events  the  count  left  Madagascar  in  a  brig, 
"La  Belle  Arthur,"  for  Europe,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  endeavoring,  with  the  consent  of  the 
chiefs,  to  make  a  treaty  of  commerce  and  alliance 
with  France  or  some  other  European  nation.  On 
his  arrival  in  France  he  reported  himself  at  Ver- 
sailles, and  so  well  pleaded  his  case  that  the  Cabi- 
net admitted  his  rights;  and,  in  consideration  of 
his  services  while  governor  under  France,  he 


ATTEMPTS  TO  COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR.  107 

was  presented  with  a  sword  of  honor.  But  so  far 
from  making  any  treaty  with  him,  and  so  ac- 
knowledging his  position  as  king,  the  Government 
refused  to  have  anything  more  to  do  with  him. 
Foiled  in  Prance,  Benyowski  offered  his  services 
to  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  was  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Habelschwerdt,  1778.  But  not  being  more 
successful  in  his  aims  in  Germany,  he  tried  to 
obtain  in  London  men  and  money  for  his  pur- 
pose and  to  enable  him  to  return  to  his  kingdom, 
but  again  he  was  doomed  to  disappointment 
These  reverses,  h  wever,  only  stimulated  him  to 
further  effort,  and  in  1784  he  was  rejoiced  at 
receiving  enough  support  from  some  merchants 
in  America  to  enable  him  to  return  to  Madagas- 
car. 

He  lauded  July  7,  1785,  at  Nosi-be,  and  gain- 
ing the  mainland  in  a  boat,  he  walked  across  the 
northern  portion  of  the  island  to  Antongil  Bay, 
where  he  was  received  with  the  greatest  enthusi- 
asm after  his  long  absence  by  those  in  the  estab- 
lishments which  he  had  founded.  To  obtain 
the  rule,  and  to  gain  possession  of  the  Govern- 
ment stores,  was  an  easy  task;  but  such  an  act 
meant  rebellion,  and  the  Governor  of  Mauritius 
was  not  likely  to  lose  the  opportunity  this  afforded 
him  of  crushing  the  obnoxious  count.  A  frig- 
ate, the  1 1  Louisa,"  was  despatched  to  take  him, 

Madagascar  aud  France.  *7 


108  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

* 4 alive  or  dead,"  and  arrived  off  Foule  Point 
1786. 

4 '  After  procuring  what  provisions  they  wanted, 
the  "Louisa"  proceeded  along  the  coast  of  Ngon- 
tsy,  and  having  moored  the  vessel  about  half  a 
league  from  the  shore,  they  sent  two  boats,  well 
manned,  with  two  pieces  of  cannon  on  the  bows 
of  each,  in  order  to  effect  a  landing.  When  this 
was  done  they  marched  immediately  towards  Ben- 
yowski's  settlement.  After  crossing  five  marshes 
they  heard  the  people  at  work  at  the  settlement, 
and  soon  after  saw  a  -red  flag,  which  is  the  com- 
mon signal  for  battle  in  the  island.  Benyowski 
had  at  this  time  retired  to  the  fort,  with  two  Eu- 
ropeans and  about  thirty  natives,  who  happened 
to  be  with  him.  The  fort  was  situated  on  an 
eminence,  surrounded  by  strong  palisades  and  de- 
fended by  two  four-pounders  and  a  few  swivels. 
These  were  played  off  against  the  French,  who, 
however,  continued  to  advance,  and  when  they 
had  got  sufficiently  near  were  ordered  to  return 
the  fire.  The  first  discharge  proved  decisive. 
Benyowski  received  a  ball  in  the  breast,  and 
fell  behind  the  parapet.  He  wras  barbarously 
dragged  forward  by  his  hair  and  expired  in  a 
few  moments. ' '  * 

Such  was  the  end  of  this  extraordinary  man, 

*  History  of  Madagascar."    Ellis,  Vol.  II.  p.  91. 


ATTEMPTS  TO  COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR.  109 

who  was  the  only  representative  France  ever  had 
in  Madagascar  with  genius  sufficient  and  pene- 
tration keen  enough  to  have  made  the  island  a 
French  possession.  But  he  was  never  seconded 
in  his  efforts  by  those  in  authority  at  home,  who 
appeared  to  have  had  very  little  anxiety  about 
the  extension  of  French  interests,  and  who  re- 
garded his  character  and  action  in  very  different 
lights.  Some  French  writers  speak  of  him  as  a 
cruel,  tyrannical  usurper,  while  others  say  that 
"his  name  is  still  held  in  veneration  by  the  Mal- 
agasy tribes  on  the  coast  among  whom  he  formed 
his  establishments." 

After  the  death  of  Benyowski  no  further  effort 
was  made  by  France  to  form  a  colony  in  Mad- 
agascar. The  revolution  which  soon  after  broke 
out  occupied  all  the  attention  of  the  Government. 
The  only  notice  taken  of  former  pretensions  was 
exhibited  in  the  despatch  of  such  men  as  Lesca- 
lier  in  1792  and  Bory  de  St.  Vincent  in  1801 
and  Decaen  in  1804,  to  ascertain  the  condition  of 
the  various  trading  stations,  kept  up  for  the  pur- 
pose of  supplying  the  wants  of  Mauritius  and 
Bourbon,  and  as  ports  from  which  to  despatch 
the  slaves  bought  for  the  markets  of  those  islands. 
All  the  horrors  of  the  slave-trade  existed  under 
French  control  there;  and  notwithstanding  every 
attempt  which  has  been  made  to  put  a  stop  to 


110  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

the  export  of  Malagasy  as  slaves,  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  in  the  island  of  Bourbon  are  many 
who  have  been  kidnapped  from  the  west  coast  by 
Creole  captains,  and  taken  to  fill  the  want  felt  by 
the  planters  in  the  stoppage  of  the  supply  of  coolies 
from  India,  for  which  their  own  cupidity  and  want 
of  fair  dealing  are  alone  responsible. 

These  traits  have  characterized  French  deal- 
ings with  all  native  races,  whether  in  the  Indian 
seas  or  the  Pacific,  and  to  this  cause  must  be  at- 
tributed the  hatred  which  the  coast  tribes  bear  to 
the  French  and  French  Creoles.  Instances  have 
frequently  come  under  the  notice  of  the  writer  il- 
lustrating the  relief  felt  by  people  in  a  lonely  vil- 
lage or  town  when  it  has  become  known  that  their 
visitor  is  English  and  not  French.  Even  in  the 
Ikongo,  a  long  distance  inland,  the  first  question 
asked,  before  any  communication  was  allowed  to 
be  made  to  the  king,  was,  "Are  you  French ?" 
and  the  traveller  heard  afterwards  for  his  satis- 
faction that,  had  he  been  of  that  nation,  steps 
would  have  been  immediately  taken  to  send  him 
out  of  their  country. 

The  value  of  French  influence  in  Madagascar 
is  well  estimated  by  Lescalier  in  the  official  re- 
port he  gives  of  his  voyage  referred  to  above. 
He  says  that  " Europeans"  (this  must  mean  the 
French,  as  no  other  nation  had  made  an  attempt 


ATTEMPTS  TO  COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR.  Ill 

on  the  east  coast,  which  alone  he  visited)  "have 
hardly  ever  visited  this  island  but  to  ill  treat  the 
natives  and  to  exact  forced  service  from  them ;  to 
excite  and  foment  quarrels  among  them  for  the 
purpose  of  purchasing  the  slaves  that  are  taken 
on  both  sides  in  the  consequent  wars;  in  a  word, 
they  have  left  no  other  mark  there  but  the  effect 
of  their  cupidity.  The  French  Government  have 
at  long  intervals  formed,  or,  rather,  attempted  to 
form,  establishments  among  these  people;  but  the 
agents  in  these  enterprises  have  attended  exclu- 
sively to  the  interests  and  emoluments  of  the 
Europeans,  and  particularly  to  their  own  profits; 
some  of  these  ministerial  delegates  have  even 
been  dishonest  adventurers  and  have  committed 
a  thousand  atrocities.  It  cannot  therefore  ex- 
cite surprise  that  sometimes  they  have  experi- 
enced marks  of  the  resentment  of  the  Malagasy, 
who,  notwithstanding,  are  naturally  the  most  easy 
and  sociable  people  on  earth." 

It  appears,  both  from  French  as  well  as  Eng- 
lish writers,  that  one  cause  of  the  want  of  suc- 
cess on  the  part  of  the  French  in  obtaining  a  firm 
footing  in  Madagascar  arose  from  a  dread  on  the 
part  of  the  colonists  of  Mauritius  and  Bourbon 
that  if  France  possessed  Madagascar  their  islands 
would  become  only  secondary.  They  thought  that 
the  larger  island  would  require  so  much  protection 


112  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

and  patronage  that  they  would  be  absolutely  ne- 
glected, and  hence  they  threw  cold  water  upon 
every  effort  at  colonisation. 

The  European  wars  of  the  empire  entirely  dis- 
tracted the  attention  of  France  from  Madagascar, 
and  her  fleets  in  distant  seas  were  too  weak  to 
protect  those  colonies  she  had  long  possessed. 
One  by  one  they  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Eng- 
lish, and  in  1810,  owing  to  the  fact  that  Mauritius 
was  the  entrepot  for  the  prises  taken  by  the  French 
fleet  from  the  allied  powers  and  a  convenient  port 
in  which  the  enemy  could  refit,  an  English  force 
was  sent  and  captured  Mauritius,  Bourbon,  and 
all  the  possessions  of  France  in  the  Indian  Ocean. 
Men  were  also  sent  to  Tamatave,  Foule  Point, 
and  the  other  establishments  of  the  French  on 
Madagascar,  to  destroy  or  occupy  them.  Thus 
ended  the  French  occupation  and  all  just  claims 
to  Madagascar. 

By  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  May  30,  1814,  Article 
8,  Bourbon  was  returned  to  the  French,  while 
Mauritius  and  her  dependencies  were  still  held 
by  the  British.  Hence,  as  the  Madagascar  sta- 
tions were  always  looked  upon  as  dependencies 
of  Mauritius,  these  naturally  became  English. 
When  Sir  Robert  Farquhar,  the  first  English 
Governor  of  Mauritius,  proclaimed  formal  pos- 
session of  Madagascar  by  His  Majesty,  the  French 


ATTEMPTS  TO  COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR.  113 

Governor  of  Bourbon,  M.  Eozier,  strongly  pro- 
tested that  Madagascar  was  not  named  in  the  ces- 
sion of  territory  to  the  English  by  the  terms  of  the 
treaty  of  1814.  The  baselessness  of  the  contention 
that  Madagascar  was  a  dependency  of  Bourbon  is 
shown  by  the  whole  course  of  events  from  1643,  as 
well  as  by  the  words  of  the  official  report  in  1801, 
in  which  these  words  occur :  4 1  The  Isle  of  France ' ' 
(as  Mauritius  was  then  called)  ucan  be  considered 
only  as  a  military  post,  and  Bourbon  as  its  maga- 
zine." So  that  even  Bourbon  itself  was  looked 
upon  as  one  of  the  dependencies  of  Mauritius. 

Some  diplomatic  correspondence  passed  in  ref- 
erence to  the  subject,  and  eventually,  on  October 
23,  1 81 7,  England  handed  over  all  her  possessions 
to  the  Hova  king,  Radama  I.,  who  was  just  then 
beginning  to  make  his  power  felt  throughout 
the  island.  A  treaty  was  made  with  him  on  that 
date  by  which,  in  consideration  of  his  abolition  of 
the  export  slave-trade,  the  English  Government 
agreed  to  pay  an  annual  pension  of  $2,000, 10,000 
lbs.  of  gunpowder,  100  muskets,  and  various 
quantities  of  military  stores  and  accoutrements. 
Some  French  writers  speak  very  bitterly  of  this 
treaty  as  an  infringement  of  their  rights  and  a 
mark  of  the  perfidy  of  England,  and  even  saddle 
her  with  "having  a  hand"  in  the  pillage  of  their 
vessek  and  trading  stations  on  the  coast,  as  well 


114  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

as  the  insolence  of  the  natives  towards  them.  We 
fail  to  see  any  injustice  in  the  English  action,  and 
it  seems  more  reasonable  to  look  at  their  former 
treatment  of  the  natives  as  the  cause  of  the  want 
of  respect  on  the  part  of  those  who  had  been 
cheated  and  robbed  by  every  adventurer  who 
ever  came  under  the  colors  of  France. 

Smarting  under  what  they  supposed  to  be  an 
ignoring  of  their  position  in  the  island,  the 
French,  in  1818,  commenced  retaking  from  the 
Malagasy  those  ports  which  had  once  been  in 
their  hands — at  Fort  Dauphin,  Tamatave,  Foule 
Point,  Mananara,  and  St.  Mary.  But  Radama 
was  in  1823  sufficiently  established  to  make  the 
attempt  to  rule  his  country  alone,  and  appeared 
suddenly  on  the  east  coast,  at  the  head  of  a  con- 
siderable force,  and  swept  the  invaders  from  his 
shores. 

In  1829  another  equally  futile  attempt  was 
made  by  the  French,  under  Gourbeyre,  to  gain  a 
footing  and  revenge  themselves  upon  the  Mala- 
gasy for  past  disasters.  But  at  Foule  Point  they 
were  put  to  rout  by  the  natives  with  great  loss, 
and  Gourbeyre  was  glad  to  betake  himself  and 
his  expedition  to  Bourbon.  Even  St.  Mary  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  have  been  theirs,  for,  accord- 
ing to  French  authority,  there  were  but  thirty- 
seven  soldiers  there  in  1836,  who  must  have  been 


ATTEMPTS  TO  COLONIZE  MADAGASCAR.  115 

permitted  by  the  islanders  to  have  remained  there 
on  sufferance ;  and  Radama,  having  no  fleet, 
looked  upon  the  island  as  too  insignificant  and 
too  unapproachable  to  trouble  himself  about  its 
possession. 

Radama  L  was  a  man  of  considerable  natural 
ability,  tact,  and  forethought,  faithful  and  honor- 
able in  the  carrying  out  of  his  engagements,  but 
still  with  the  uncultured  savagery  of  the  heathen 
barbarian.  His  wars  were  marked  by  constant 
rapine  and  license,  his  government  by  a  rough 
and  severe  justice.  The  advance  which  he  and 
his  subjects  made  during  his  reign  is  to  be  ac- 
counted for  entirely  by  the  wisdom  he  displayed 
in  accepting  the  good  offices  of  strangers  who 
came  to  his  country  from  pure  philanthropic  mo- 
tives, and  whom  he  was  able  to  discriminate  from 
the  many  who  resided  in  his  country  simply  to 
trade,  which,  too  often  in  those  days,  meant 
cheating  and  robbing.  It  is  to  Radama' s  credit 
that,  notwithstanding  the  many  inducements  to 
break  the  treaty  with  England  and  continue  the 
slave-trade,  he  kept  faithful  to  his  promise,  and 
forbore  to  make  profit  by  eluding  the  vigilance  of 
the  English  cruisers. 

Meanwhile  M.  Roux,  the  French  Governor  of 
St.  Mary,  had  again  and  again  tried  to  stir  up 
the  tribes  on  the  mainland  to  the  south  to  take 


Il6  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

up  arms  against  Radama,  and  after  the  establish- 
ment of  the  native  post  at  Foule  Point  an  endeav- 
or was  made  to  induce  the  natives  to  attack  and 
destroy  it.  But  their  efforts  in  this  direction 
proved  altogether  abortive,  as  the  coast  people 
felt  more  confidence  in  their  Hova  conquerors 
than  in  their  French  oppressors. 

In  1824  Radama  formed  the  project  of  subju- 
gating all  the  other  tribes  of  the  island  to  his 
sway,  and,  accompanied  by  Mr.  Hastie,  the  Brit- 
ish resident,  led  a  force  against  the  Northern 
Sakalava  and  subdued  them,  chief  after  chief 
meeting  him  and  swearing  fealty  to  him.  Dur- 
ing the  remainder  of  the  lifetime  of  the  king  these 
people  acknowledged  his  supremacy,  although 
French  agency  was  not  wanting  to  attempt  to 
stir  them  up  to  resistance  and  to  an  assertion  of 
independence. 


THE  RECENT  FRENCH  CLAIMS.  117 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  RECENT  FRENCH  CLAIMS. 

Loyalty  of  Sakalava  Chiefs.  Rebellion  in  1839.  So-called  Ces- 
sion of  Territory,  and  Treaty  of  1840.  Lambert  Company. 
Radama  II. 's  Death.  Indemnity  Paid  by  Malagasy.  Land  in 
the  Capital  Claimed  by  the  Heirs  of  M.  Laborde.  "Govern- 
ment Gazette  "  on  the  Validity  of  Claim.  Indemnity  Demanded 
for  Lives  of  Arabs  on  the  "  Tousle."  Native  Accounts.  Arrival 
of  M.  Baudais.  Examination  of  Native  Witnesses.  Sudden 
Demand  of  France  for  all  the  Northwest  Coast.  Native  Objec- 
tions. M.  Le  Timbre  and  Hova  Flags.  Embargo  on  the 
"Antananarivo."  Points  which  Militate  Against  French 
Claims.  The  Matter  of  the  "  Antananarivo."  Detention  by 
Le  Timbre  Indirectly  Causes  Death  of  Americans  on  South- 
west. Account  of  the  Outrage  on  Mr.  Emerson.  Outrage  to 
the  American  Flag.    Determined  Action  of  American  Consul. 

The  Sakalava  remained  faithful  to  the  Kino; 
of  Madagascar,  as  Radama  I.  was  styled,  and  to 
his  successor  Ranavalona  I.,  until  1839.  Then 
the  severity  and  harsh  enactments  of  that  persecu- 
ting queen  drove  a  portion  of  the  tribe  (those  in 
Iboina)  into  rebellion.  Hova  troops  were  sent 
against  them  and  conquered  them.  They  fled 
the  country,  and  took  refuge  in  Nosi-be,  Mayot- 
ta,  Nosi-Mitsio,  and  other  small  islands  off  the 
northwest  coast.  A  French  man-of-war  soon 
after  coming  to  Nosi-be  "made  common  cause 
with  the  Sakalava;  and  it  is  alleged  that  in  July, 


Il8  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

1840,  the  latter  ceded  their  territory  on  the  main- 
land together  with  Nosi-be  to  the  French.  That 
island  was  accordingly  taken  possession  of  by  the 
French  in  1841,  and  has  ever  since  remained  in 
their  hands;  but  from  that  date  till  the  year 
1882  no  attempt  had  ever  been  made  to  enforce 
the  right  the  French  claim  to  have  acquired  on 
the  mainland;  and  the  Hova  Government  has 
always  strenuously  resisted  any  such  claims  by 
foreigners. ' '  * 

Shortly  after  the  possession  of  Nosi-be,  accord- 
ing to  a  native  eye-witness  still  living  in  Tama- 
tave,  a  scheme  was  made  to  obtain  a  footing  on 
the  mainland  and  on  some  of  the  smaller  islands. 
A  French  man-of-war  arrived  off  Nosi-Mitsio, 
and  the  chief  was  induced  to  go  on  board,  as  it 
was  stated  that  the  ship  had  come  to  show  him 
how  friendly  the  French  wished  to  be  with  him. 
At  first  he  declined  to  go,  but  was  at  last  per- 
suaded to  trust  himself  on  board,  when  the  vessel 
immediately  left  and  took  him  to  Bourbon.  He 
was  feted  there  for  some  time,  was  presented  with 
a  sword  and  uniform,  and  eventually  signed  a 
document  agreeing  to  a  French  protectorate. 
When  this  was  completed  he  returned  to  find  that 
his  people  were  by  no  means  so  ready  to  brook 

*  "What  are  French  Claims  on  Madagascar?"  by  Rev.  J. 
Sibree,  F.  R.  G.  S. 


THE  RECENT  FRENCH  CLAIMS.  119 


any  interference.  Serious  disturbances  occurred 
while  the  French  man-of-war  was  still  there,  and 
the  chief  begged  to  be  taken  away  to  Nosi-be. 
He  was  landed  there,  and  the  French  returned, 
reduced  the  island  to  order,  and  followed  many 
fugitives  to  the  mainland,  which  they  also  claimed 
as  part  of  the  chieftainship.  This  is  only  a  na- 
tive account,  and  I  give  it  for  what  it  is  worth; 
there  is  doubtless  some  truth  in  it,  as  the  narrator 
is  a  trustworthy  native  pastor. 

In  1862  much  more  important  negotiations 
seemed  to  put  a  large  part  of  the  island  into  the 
hands  of  a  French  company,  called  the  Lambert 
Company.  Radama  II.,  who  was  then  king, 
was  powerfully  influenced  by  foreigners,  and  very 
decided  leanings  towards  the  French  were  evinced 
in  his  conduct  of  the  kingdom.  It  is  well  known 
that  this  infatuation,  his  almost  constant  state  of 
drunkenness,  and  his  countenance  of  duelling, 
caused  the  revolution  which  ended  in  his  death, 
after  a  short  reign.  By  the  terms  of  the  agree- 
ment with  the  Lambert  Company,  he  granted 
them  sovereign  rights  over  all  the  land  between 
the  120  and  160  of  south  latitude. 

A  concession  of  this  kind  is  entirely  opposed 
to  the  principles  of  the  Malagasy  Government,  a 
fundamental  one  being  that  all  land  belongs  to 
the  sovereign,  and  that  no  foreigner  can  own  land 


ISO  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

in  the  country.  So  powerful  was  the  opposition 
in  the  succeeding  reign  to  the  claims  of  the  com- 
pany that  a  compromise  was  effected,  in  order  to 
satisfy  at  once  the  prejudices  of  the  natives  and 
the  vested  right  of  the  company.  This  was  done 
by  means  of  a  payment  of  $240,000  on  the  part 
of  the  Malagasy  Government  to  the  company; 
and  the  acceptance  of  this  indemnity  entirely  re- 
scinded all  claims  of  the  French  to  any  part  of 
the  mainland;  for  it  is  a  noticeable  fact  that  in  the 
agreement  made  the  king  was  styled  "King  of 
Madagascar,"  not  king  of  the  Hovas,  thus  im- 
plying his  sovereignty  over  the  whole  island.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  their  treaty  made  in  1868, 
where  several  times,  as  in  the  English  and  Amer- 
ican treaties,  the  queen  is  styled  Queen  of  Mada- 
gascar, which  must  necessarily  mean  the  whole 
island.  No  claim  was  made  to  the  territory  on 
the  northwest,  and  the  French  vessels  in  common 
with  those  of  other  nationalities  paid  the  usual 
customs  to  the  Hova  authorities  placed  there  to 
receive  them.  What  can  be  better  proof  than 
this  that  the  French  acknowledged  the  right  of 
the  queen — who  was  even  appealed  to  when  dis- 
putes arose  between  the  French  traders  there  and 
the  Hova  officers  ? 

The  first  time  that  an  attempt  was  made  to 
wrest  any  land  from  its  original  and  rightful 


THE  RECENT  FRENCH  CLAIMS.  121 

owners  was  made  by  M.  Cassas  on  behalf  of  the 
heir  to  the  former  consul,  M.  L,aborde.  A  piece 
of  land  had  been  given  to  the  latter  for  his  sole 
use  at  Andohalo,  in  the  centre  of  the  capital,  in 
the  same  way  as  plots  had  been  given  to  British 
subjects  who  were  favorites  with  the  sovereign. 
On  these  they  built,  and,  in  fact,  used  them  as 
their  own  freeholds.  But  each  plot  had  reverted 
to  the  queen  on  the  death  or  departure  of  the  orig- 
inal recipient;  as,  for  instance,  the  plot  given  to 
Mr.  Cameron,  who  enjoyed  the  undisturbed  use  of 
his  piece  of  land  till  his  death,  when  the  houses 
and  land  reverted  to  the  crown.  But  on  M.  L,a- 
borde's  death  an  unrighteous  endeavor  was  made 
to  compel  the  recognition  of  the  claim  of  his  heirs 
to  possess  this  land  in  perpetuity.  To  this  the 
Government  demurred,  stating  the  above  agree- 
ment, and  also  referring  to  the  fact  that  when  M. 
Laborde  was  driven  out  of  the  country  by  Rana- 
valona  I.  no  attempt  was  made  to  claim  the  land. 
"  And  further,"  says  the  "Government  Gazette, " 
"the  document  said  to  have  been  signed  and 
sealed,  in  support  of  this  claim,  cannot  be  admit- 
ted as  proving  the  validity  of  the  claim,  because 
M.  C.  Laborde,  who  alone  appears  as  witness, 
kept  the  seal  of  Radama  II. ,  and  could  use  it  as 
he  pleased;  and  not  only  so,  the  date  of  the  docu- 
ment is  1864,  but  Radama  II.  died  in  1863.  And 


122  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

after  he  was  dead  even  M.  Clement  Laborde  still 
kept  the  seal,  and  not  till  the  Government  ex- 
pressed some  indignation  did  he  give  it  up.  Be- 
fore any  arrangement  had  been  made  M.  Cassas 
left  for  home  in  1879."* 

"  In  1881,"  to  quote  from  the  same  authority, 
"M.  Meyer  came  up  to  the  capital  to  take  the 
place  of  M.  Cassas.  He  was  received  with  the 
same  honor  as  had  been  shown  to  M.  Cassas.  M. 
Meyer's  business  was  to  report  that  a  dhow  called 
the  'Touele,'  belonging  to  Arabs,  but  French 
subjects,  had  come  to  Marambitsy,  a  port  on  the 
boundary  of  the  land  under  the  rule  of  Bokary 
Bekirondro,  and  that  four  Arabs  had  been  killed 
and  the  cargo  stolen  or  lost.  He  claimed  an  in- 
demnity of  $9,740  for  the  lives  of  the  men  and  for 
the  value  of  the  merchandise." 

The  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs 
sent  to  the  Governor  of  Mojanga  to  seek  the  mur- 
derers of  these  Arabs.  But  a  little  time  after  the 
messengers  had  left  for  Mojanga  and  adjacent 
Hova  stations  a  letter  from  Bokary  Bekirondro 
was  received,  stating  that  those  Arabs  were  sell- 
ing; arms  and  ammunition  at  x\ndoka,  which  is  a 
place  not  yet  acknowledged  as  a  port  by  the  Mal- 
agasy Government;  that  is,  a  place  without  a  cus- 
tom-house.  Therefore  the  messengers  of  Bekiron- 

*  "  Ny  Gazety  Malagasy,"  for  June  23,  p.  2. 


THE  RECENT  FRENCH  CLAIMS.  1 23 

dro  forbade  them  to  land  and  sell  them;  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  Arabs  fired  on  the  Malagasy, 
and  Jangoa,  a  Sakalava  and  a  Malagasy  subject, 
was  killed. 

While  negotiations  were  still  pending,  M. 
Baudais  arrived  in  1882,  and  M.  Meyer  left  the 
country. 

The  business  in  connection  with  the  dhow 
"Touele"  was  taken  up  again  by  M.  Baudais 
and  the  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs. 
The  former  was  told  that,  as  M.  Meyer  had  been 
previously  informed,  messengers  had  been  sent  to 
inquire  into  the  matter,  and  that  when  they  ar- 
rived at  Mojanga  every  effort  was  made  to  dis- 
cover the  Sakalava  who  were  said  to  have  mur- 
dered these  French  subjects.  One,  whose  name 
was  Ijoby,  was  arrested.  When  brought  up  he 
was  examined  by  the  governor,  and  he  said, 
"When  those  Arabs,  French  subjects,  came  to 
sell  arms  at  Marambitsy  we  were  sent  by  Bekiron- 
dro  to  forbid  them  selling  them,  as  it  was  a  viola- 
tion of  the  treaty  between  France  and  Madagas- 
car, which  stipulates  that  no  arms  should  be  im- 
ported into  the  kingdom  of  the  sovereign  of  Mad- 
agascar except  those  sent  for  by  the  Government. 
On  account  of  the  breaking  of  this  agreement  we 
were  despatched  by  Bokary  Bekirondro  to  forbid 
the  sale.  Twice  we  forbade  it,  but  no  notice  was 
8 


124  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

taken ;  and  when  we  came  the  third  time  to  stop 
them  the  Arabs  became  enraged,  and  they  said, 
'What  do  you  know  about  it?'  They  fired  at  us, 
and  our  leader  was  wounded  and  fell  into  the  wa- 
ter, while  many  of  the  others  were  killed.  When 
we  saw  that  they  attacked  us  in  earnest — for  our 
hands  could  not  shield  us  from  their  balls — we 
fired,  because  they  were  not  only  breaking  the 
treaty,  but  attacked  us  first. ' ' 

When  these  words  of  Ijoby  were  sent  by  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs  to  M.  Bau- 
dais  he  would  not  take  them  into  consideration  at 
all,  but  pressed  for  the  payment  of  the  indemnity 
mentioned  by  M.  Meyer,  saying  that  wThat  the 
Arabs  had  done  was  no  infringement  of  the  stipu- 
lations of  the  treaty.  Notwithstanding,  because 
of  the  desire  of  the  Government  of  Madagascar 
for  the  continued  friendship  of  the  Government 
of  France,  and  its  dislike  of  vacillation,  they  paid 
the  indemnity. 

After  a  little  time  had  elapsed  M.  Baudais  de- 
clared that  the  northwest  coast  of  Madagascar, 
under  the  Princes  Benas  and  Monja,  belonged  to 
the  French,  and  he  said  that  a  treaty  to  that  effect 
had  long  been  made  with  the  Sakalava.  The 
Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs  protested 
strongly  against  the  possession  of  that  land  by  any 
foreigner,  and  the  proof  of  their  not  possessing  it 


THE  RECENT  FRENCH  CLAIMS.  1 25 

was  the  treaty  signed  in  1868,  in  which  the  Gov- 
ernment of  France  acknowledge  that  the  queen  is 
the  sovereign  of  the  whole  of  Madagascar.  Be- 
sides this,  that  tract  of  country  was  comprised  in 
the  land  for  which  Rasoherina,  the  queen,  paid 
$240,000  in  1856,  and  from  that  time  the  French 
ceased  to  own  the  smallest  piece  of  land  in  Mada- 
gascar. Again,  the  fact  that  the  merchants, 
whether  French  or  English,  paid  all  the  custom 
duties  to  the  queen,  and  that  these  were  received 
by  officers  placed  there  by  her,  is  proof  that  the 
land  was  recognized  as  belonging  to  the  sovereign 
of  Madagascar. 

But  although  these  proofs  were  placed  before 
them  it  only  made  matters  worse  here,  and  Com- 
mandant I^e  Timbre  took  forcible  possession  of 
the  Hova  flags  which  had  been  hoisted  by  Behar- 
amanja  and  Mahavanona,  and  laid  an  embargo 
on  the  "  Antananarivo,"  a  ship  belonging  to  the 
Queen  of  Madagascar,  and  objected  to  the  land- 
ing of  the  rifles  bought  from  an  American  com- 
pany  in  Tamatave. 

The  above  is  a  concise  statement  of  the  claims 
of  the  French  to  the  northwest  territory,  from 
which  it  is  seen  that  the  Government  felt  itself 
too  weak  to  resist  the  payment  of  the  indemnity 
for.  the  Arab  smugglers  who  were  killed  by  the 
Malagasy  is  self-defence,  although  they  felt  its 


126 


MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


great  injustice.  It  is  difficult  to  see  how  the 
French  Government  reconcile  the  above  demand 
with  their  claim  to  the  very  territory  in  which 
the  escapade  occurred.  Outrages  of  a  similar  na- 
ture, but  where  only  Malagasy  have  been  killed 
by  French  subjects,  have  been  by  no  means  un- 
common; and  I  have  heard  on  good  authority 
cases  of  kidnapping  and  murder  on  the  west  coast 
which  for  inhuman  atrocity  are  only  equalled  by 
the  exploits  of  some  of  the  South  Sea  kidnappers. 
But  the  Malagasy  Government  have  not  had  suf- 
ficient power  to  enforce  their  claims  for  repara- 
tion, and  the  perpetrators  not  only  are  still  free 
and  unpunished,  but  at  least  one  French  captain 
makes  a  boast  of  how  many  he  killed  in  one  voy- 
age. And  yet,  when  some  Arabs  of  doubtful  na- 
tionality, by  choosing  to  fly  the  French  flag,  are 
killed  for  their  misdeeds  in  territory  claimed  by 
the  French  Government,  the  Malagasy  are  com- 
pelled to  pay  the  sum  of  ;£  1,948  because  some  of 
their  subjects  endeavored  to  defend  their  own 
lives !  The  matters  which  bear  against  the 
French  claims  to  the  part  of  the  Sakalava  terri- 
tory are  clearly  tabulated  by  W.  C.  Pickersgill, 
Esq.,*  in  the  "Madagascar  Tract,"  No.  2.  Fol- 
lowing his  arrangement  they  appear  as  follows: 
1.  Ranavalona  II.  and  her  predecessors  have 

*  Since  appointed  H.  B.  M.'s  Vice-Consul  at  Antananarivo. 


THE  RECENT  FRENCH  CLAIMS.  127 

been  acknowledged  by  French  treaties  as  sover- 
eigns of  Madagascar,  without  any  reservation 
whatever. 

2.  The  Hova  authorities  have  collected  cus- 
toms at  various  ports  in  the  disputed  territory 
ever  since  the  country  became  theirs  by  conquest. 

3.  The  Sakalava  chieftains  and  princes  have 
all  at  various  times  presented  their  tokens  of 
fealty  to  the  Hova  sovereigns. 

4.  The  Sakalava  people  have  paid  a  yearly 
poll-tax  to  the  Hova. 

5.  The  French  flag  has  never  been  hoisted  on 
the  mainland  (northwest)  of  Madagascar.  The 
Hova  flag  has  been  flying  for  more  than  forty 
years  on  the  territory  now  claimed  by  France. 

6.  Hova  governors  have  from  time  to  time  en- 
croached upon  the  privileges  granted  to  the  van- 
quished Sakalava  by  Radama  I.  The  Sakalava 
have  looked  to  the  Queen  at  Antananarivo  for 
redress.  No  jurisdiction  has  been  exercised  by 
France  or  colonial  French  in  these  matters. 

7.  British  war  vessels  have  cruised  in  the 
waters  of  the  disputed  territory  for  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  slave-trade.  A  British  consul  has 
landed  there,  and  has  dealt  directly  with  the 
native  authorities,  according  to  terms  agreed  upon 
by  himself  and  the  Hova  Government,  without 
any  reference  whatever  to  France. 


128  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

8.  French  representatives  have  repeatedly 
blamed  the  Hova  Government  for  not  asserting 
its  authority  more  fully  upon  the  west  coast. 

9.  France  has  quite  recently  imposed  a  heavy 
fine  upon  the  Hova  Government  for  a  so-called 
1  'outrage  committed  by  the  Sakalava  upon  an 
Arab  dhow  flying  French  colors. ' ' 

Other  points  might  be  adduced  to  show  the 
hollo wness  of  these  so-called  "just  claims, "  but 
the  above  suffice  for  our  purpose. 

After  Commandant  Le  Timbre  had  tried  to 
frighten  the  Governor  of  Tamatave  with  threats 
of  bombardment,  he  set  sail  for  the  northwest, 
and  cut  down  the  two  flagstaffs  bearing  the 
newly-erected  Malagasy  flags.  Not  a  very  dif- 
ficult task,  seeing  that  the  Sakalava  were  not 
likely  to  defend  them  against  armed  Frenchmen, 
and  the  nearest  Hova  station  was  several  miles 
distant.  He  returned  to  Tamatave  and  offered 
the  flags  to  the  governor  if  he  would  give  him  a 
written  receipt  for  them,  which,  however,  he  de- 
clined to  do.  M.  L,e  Timbre  then  laid  an  em- 
bargo on  the  "  Antananarivo, n  the  only  ship  pos- 
sessed by  the  Malagasy  Government,  which  was 
being  used  as  a  training  ship  for  some  half  a  dozen 
Hova  youths,  among  them  the  Prime  Minister's 
son,  to  fit  them  to  become  naval  commanders  and 
officers.    The  vessel  was  under  the  command  of 


THE  RECENT  FRENCH  CLAIMS.  129 

a  Norwegian  captain,  conversant  with  the  Mal- 
agasy language  and  with  life  on  the  west  coast. 
He  had  been  commissioned  by  the  Hova  Govern- 
ment first  to  make  one  or  two  trading  expeditions, 
and  then  the  soldiers  told  off  for  service  on  the 
west  coast  would  have  been  appointed,  and  he  was 
to  take  them  round  to  their  various  posts.  Hear- 
ing of  this,  and  before  any  intimation  had  been 
given  that  war  was  likely  to  be  declared,  M.  Le 
Timbre  sent  word  to  the  captain  to  unbend  his 
sails  and  make  no  attempt  to  leave  the  port;  that 
if  such  should  take  place,  he  would  fire  into  the 
vessel.  So  for  several  months  the  Malagasy  were 
checked  in  their  endeavor  to  carry  out  that 
which  the  French  had  again  and  again  reproached 
them  with  not  doing — firmly  establishing  their 
authority  on  the  west  coast.  Admiral  Gore-Jones 
advised  the  Malagasy  to  do  this,  and  the  native 
idea  is  that  he  promised  help  towards  the  firm 
planting  of  Hova  authority  over  the  troublesome 
Sakalava. 

The  action  of  M.  Le  Timbre  had  results  be- 
yond the  mere  detention  of  the  Malagasy  vessel, 
for  to  it  may  be  also  attributed  indirectly  the 
murder  of  an  American  and  two  others  on  the 
southwest  coast.  Mr.  Pakenham,  in  forwarding 
to  Lord  Granville  an  account  of  this  affair,  which 
is  given  below,  says,  "I  fear  that  French  con- 


130  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE). 

sular  authority  in  Madagascar  must  be  held,  at 
least  morally,  responsible  for  this  outrage,  inas- 
much as  they  have  prevented  the  Hova  Govern- 
ment from  sending  troops  by  sea  to  the  west  coast 
of  Madagascar,  and  thus  left  all  foreign  traders 
there  at  the  entire  mercy  of  unprincipled  Saka- 
lava  chiefs,  who  have  seized  the  opportunity  to 
throw  off  even  the  nominal  allegiance  to  the 
Queen  of  Madagascar." 

The  account  of  the  murder  forwarded  is  as 
follows: 

"  Messrs.  Emerson  and  Hulett,  who  came  via 
Natal,  arrived  at  Morondava  some  months  since, 
and  after  travelling  into  the  interior  from  there, 
came  south  to  Nos  Bey,  when  they  procured  the 
services  of  M.  Parent  as  guide  and  interpreter. 
They  left  Tolia  on  the  9th  instant,  with  the  in- 
tention of  proceeding  to  Antanosy.  On  the  fol- 
lowing day,  about  noon,  they  arrived  at  a  water- 
ing-place, where  they  rested  for  some  time;  they 
here  met  a  number  of  Bara  and  Mahafaly  people, 
who  had  a  few  cattle,  and  were  apparently  on 
their  way  to  the  beach  to  sell  the  cattle  at  St. 
Augustine's.  The  natives  appeared  quite  friend- 
ly, and  nothing  hostile  was  observed  in  their 
manners.  On  resuming  the  journey  they  pro- 
ceeded about  half  a  mile,  and  were  near  some 
trees  and  bush,  when,  without  the  slightest  warn- 


THE  RECENT  FRENCH  CLAIMS.  133 

ing,  shots  were  fired,  and  Mr.  Emerson,  who  was 
slightly  in  advance,  fell  and  died  immediately  ; 
after  this  out  rushed  about  forty  or  fifty  men  (the 
same  that  they  had  seen  at  the  watering-place) 
with  spears,  and  attacked  the  others;  the  bearers 
thereupon  threw  down  their  packages  and  fled 
to  the  bush,  one  African  getting  speared  and 
killed. 

' '  Mr.  Hulett,  who  happened  to  be  a  little  way 
behind,  went  after  one,  Antanosy,  who  was  carry- 
ing his  revolver,  but  he  was  afraid  to  give  it  to 
Mr.  Hulett,  and  advised  him  to  run  or  he  would 
certainly  be  killed;  as  they  were  alone,  and  while 
altercating,  a  party  of  the  natives  came  on  them 
throwing  spears,  wounding  both  Mr.  Hulett  and 
the  Antanosy  in  the  legs.  They  were  therefore 
obliged  to  run.  After  going  some  distance  the 
Antanosy  dropped  the  revolver,  which  Mr.  Hulett 
recovered,  and  although  much  exhausted,  he 
turned  upon  his  pursuers,  who  thereupon  went  into 
the  bushes  and  returned  to  the  main  body.  Mr. 
Hulett  says  that  the  last  time  he  saw  M.  Parent 
he  was  surrounded  by  the  natives,  who  were  men- 
acing him,  while  he  was  apparently  attempting 
to  expostulate  with  them.  But  the  Antanosy 
says  that  he  saw  M.  Parent  get  a  spear  wound  in 
the  right  side.  Mr.  Hulett,  seeing  that  his  feeble 
resistance  would  be  of  no  avail,  went  off  into  the 


134  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

bush  with  the  Antanosy  (Cravat),  and  they  hid 
themselves  till  about  midnight,  when  they  went 
back  to  see  if  they  could  find  the  bodies  of  their 
comrades,  but  could  not  do  so  in  the  dark,  so 
they  then  made  the  best  of  their  way  towards  the 
beach.  On  arriving  next  morning  at  a  village 
they  had  passed  before  on  the  journey  up,  they 
hired  some  people  to  carry  them  to  Tolia,  where 
they  arrived  on  Monday  evening  the  nth  instant, 
and  where  they  now  are,  both  very  ill  in  conse- 
quence of  their  wounds. 

"On  the  news  arriving  at  Nosi-be  on  Tues- 
day, Mr.  Allan,  an  employe  of  Messrs.  H.  and  F. 
McCubin,  went  to  Tolia  and  hired  about  twenty 
men  with  whom  he  proceeded  to  the  scene  of  the 
murders;  and  having  found  and  recognized  the 
bodies  of  Messrs.  Emerson,  Parent,  and  the  Afri- 
can, mutilated  with  spear  wounds,  and  both  arms 
of  M.  Parent  either  cut  or  torn  from  the  sockets 
and  carried  away,  they  buried  them  on  the  spot, 
as  they  were  in  an  unfit  state  to  bring  to  Tolia, 
Mr.  Allan  leaving  some  marks,  so  that  he  would 
again  know  the  spot,  the  burial  taking  place  on 
the  morning  of  the  15th  instant. 

"Dated  September  19,  1882. n* 

Another  escapade  following  the  embargo  laid 
upon  the  "  Antananarivo, "  and  equally  with  that 

*  "  Correspondence  Respecting  Madagascar,"  1  (1883),  pp  12, 13. 


THE  RECENT  FRENCH  CLAIMS.  135 

showing  the  weakness  of  French  officialism 
abroad,  was  the  action  of  the  same  commander 
towards  an  American  vessel  which  came  in  about 
this  time  bringing  a  consignment  of  rifles  and 
ammunition  purchased  by  the  Hova  Government. 

The  "Forfait"  being  the  only  armed  vessel 
in  the  harbor,  her  commander  seemed  to  consider 
that  he  had  full  control  over  all  warlike  appa- 
ratus. He  accordingly  forbids  the  landing  of  these 
arms;  and  sends  a  steam  launch  armed  with  a 
small  cannon  in  her  bows,  which  is  deliberately 
loaded  alongside  the  American  bark  and  pointed 
at  her  gangway,  and  this  while  the  American 
flag  was  flying  from  the  peak.  u  Next  morning 
a  letter  from  the  United  States  consul  brought 
the  'Forfait's'  commodore  and  his  compatriot  the 
French  representative  on  shore,  up  to  the  Ameri- 
can office,  with  a  request  for  an  opportunity  of 
explaining  things.  'Gentlemen,'  said  the  sturdy 
old  Federal  colonel  who  stood  beneath  the  stars 
and  stripes,  1 1  can  have  nothing  to  do  with  you 
until  yonder  insult  to  my  nation  is  removed;' 
whereupon  the  launch  was  immediately  taken 
away;  there  was  much  apologizing,  and  many 
assurances  that  no  offence  whatever  had  been  in- 
tended, and  the  rifles  and  cartridges  were  landed 
without  the  least  further  opposition.*" 

*  "  Madagascar  Tract,"  No.  2,  W.  C.  Pickersgill,  Esq. 


136  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

However,  the  French  acting  vice-consul  made 
another  attempt  to  get  these  rifles  into  his  hands 
after  they  had  left  the  American  store  and  were 
being  carried  by  the  natives  to  the  fort,  and  it 
was  only  by  the  interference  once  more  of  Amer- 
ican authority  that  they  were  snatched  from  the 
hungry  grasp  of  the  Frenchmen.  This  is  the 
way  that  Frenchmen  abroad  are  trying  to  show 
the  u  nation  altogether  barbarous"  how  civiliza- 
tion  ennobles  the  mind,  strengthens  the  good 
points  of  character,  and  elevates  a  nation. 


THE  EMBASSY  TO  EUROPE. 


137 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  EMBASSY  TO  EUROPE. 

Embassy  Sent  to  Europe.  Arrival  in  Tamatave.  Refusal  of 
French  to  Allow  it  to  Leave  in  Mail  Steamer.  Departure  in 
Bullocker.  Arrival  at  Marseilles  and  Paris.  Their  Treat- 
ment by  the  Special  Commissioners.  Practically  Prisoners 
and  not  Guests  of  France.  Departure  for  England.  Recep- 
tion by  Lord  Granville.  Deputation  to  Foreign  Secretary. 
Understanding  between  England  and  France.  Correspond- 
ence between  the  two  Governments.  Revision  of  Treaty. 
French  Unwillingness  to  allow  the  Right  of  the  Malagasy  to 
make  their  own  Laws.  Willingness  of  Ambassadors  to  Mod- 
ify Treaties  respecting  the  Land  Tenure.  The  "  Madagascar 
Times"  on  New  Land  Clause.  Only  Obstacle  to  the  Forma- 
tion of  European  Companies  Removed.  Ambassadors  and 
the  Liquor-traffic.  American  and  British  Treaties  on  the 
Imports  of  Rum. 

Finding  how  impossible  it  was  to  come  to 
any  arrangement  with  the  French  authorities  in 
the  island,  and  feeling  sure  that  events  were 
drifting  on  to  war,  the  Queen  of  Madagascar  de- 
termined upon  sending  an  embassy  to  the  treaty 
powers  and  Germany.  This  was  done  in  the 
hope  that  by  representing  their  case  clearly  and 
personally  to  the  civilized  courts  who  had  interest 
in  the  welfare  of  the  Malagasy,  and  who  had  long 
been  engaged  commercially  with  the  island,  there 
would  be  little  difficulty  in  proving  that  they 


I38  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

were  morally  right,  and  hence,  they  argued,  there 
would  be  a  speedy  termination  of  that  which  was 
unjust.  In  despatching  this  embassy,  it  is  true, 
the  Queen  and  Prime  Minister  had  very  indis- 
tinct ideas,  both  of  the  way  that  diplomatic  busi- 
ness is  managed  by  civilized  powers,  and  of  the 
numberless  collateral  considerations  which  materi- 
ally affect  the  decisions  of  Cabinets,  even  when 
right  and  justice  are  opposed  by  might  and  rapa- 
cious greed.  They  thought  in  their  innocence 
that  righteousness,  and  not  mere  expediency,  was 
the  governing  principle  in  the  civilized  Christian 
nations,  and  imagined  that  on  the  representation 
of  their  side  of  the  case  a  kind  of  committee  of 
the  different  nations  would  be  called  to  determine 
what  was  right  and  which  of  the  contending 
parties  was  in  error,  and  that  then  an  immediate 
withdrawal  from  the  false  position  by  the  con- 
demned party  would  result.  "  Utterly  impracti- 
cable," we  say;  but,  in  principle,  are  they  an  age 
before  or  an  age  behind  the  times? 

The  embassy  consisted  of  Ravoninahitriniari- 
vo  of  the  15th  honor  and  Ramaniraka  of  the  13th 
honor,  together  with  their  secretaries  and  aides- 
de-camp.  They  were  also  accompanied  by  Mr. 
Tacchi,  who  had  been  appointed  by  the  native 
Government  to  act  as  their  escort  and  interpreter. 
The  appointment  was  signified  to  the  French 


THE  EMBASSY  TO  EUROPE.  141 

commissioner  soon  after  he  left  the  capital;  and 
again,  in  a  letter  which  Ravoninahitriniarivo 
wrote  on  July  4,  1882,  he  mentions  the  subject 
in  connection  with  his  protest  against  the  ac- 
tion of  M.  L,e  Timbre.  In  this  letter  he  says: 
"The  Madagascar  Government  has  seen  with 
pain  the  copy  of  the  letter  addressed  to  you  by 
M.  A.  Le  Timbre,  declaring  that  he  has  seized 
the  flags  of  the  Queen  of  Madagascar  hoisted  at 
Beharamanja  and  Mahavanona  (Bay  of  Passanda- 
va). 

uBy  this  note  I  declare,  in  the  name  of  the 
Government  of  Madagascar,  that  it  protests 
against  this  act  of  Commander  Le  Timbre  in 
having  forcibly  removed  the  flags  of  the  Queen 
of  Madagascar,  hoisted  in  her  kingdom,  in  despite 
of  the  good  relations  existing  between  the  Gov- 
ernments of  France  and  Madagascar. 

"I  declare,  moreover,  that  the  embassy  of  the 
Queen  of  Madagascar,  which  has  already  been  an- 
nounced to  you,  and  which  will  visit  the  Govern- 
ment of  France  and  the  other  friendly  powers, 
will  not  fail  to  communicate  this  deplorable  affair 
to  the  French  Government;  for  the  Government 
of  Madagascar  earnestly  desires  the  maintenance 
of  the  good  relations  now  existing  between  France 
and  Madagascar,  with  a  view  to  the  progress  of 
civilization,  commerce,  and  agriculture. " 


142  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

This  protest,  mild  and  perfectly  reasonable, 
seeing  that  this  action  had  been  taken  by  M.  L,e 
Timbre  before  any  declaration  of  war  had  been 
made,  and  while  a  pretence  of  friendly  relations 
was  still  maintained,  was  treated  with  contempt 
by  the  French  authorities  in  Tamatave,  as  was 
also  another  which  speedily  followed  it,  on  July 
11,  protesting  against  the  embargo  laid  on  the  de- 
parture of  the  "Antananarivo"  from  the  harbor 
on  pain  of  seizure;  and  the  reasons  given  for  pro- 
testing against  this  high-handed  action  appear  to 
us  perfectly  valid:  (1)  1  'The  Malagasy  people, 
like  those  of  other  nations,  have  the  right  to  nav- 
igate their  ships  on  the  sea.  (2)  The  relations 
existing  between  the  two  Governments  being 
good,  such  a  thing  ought  not  to  exist  at  a  time 
when  they  are  on  the  best  terms."* 

It  is  a  puzzle  to  others  beside  the  Malagasy  to 
understand  the  principle  upon  which  the  com- 
mander of  the  "Forfait"  acted;  and  the  self-con- 
tained way  and  dignified  style  of  addressing  them- 
selves to  the  subject  is  not  only  surprising,  but 
highly  commendable  in  the  Hova  Government. 
Without  any  bluster  or  precipitate  haste,  they 
simply  let  it  be  known  that  while  they  could  not 
tamely  submit  to  the  action  of  French  officials, 
they  were  also  impressed  with  the  belief  that  the 

*  "Africa,"  No.  r,  1S83. 


THE  EMBASSY  TO  EUROPE.  143 

Home  Government  of  France  could  not  sympa- 
thize with  it  if  they  were  fully  informed  of  the 
facts  in  all  their  bearings. 

In  July  the  envoys  arrived  at  Tamatave  and 
were  received  with  all  honor  by  the  governor  of 
that  place,  and  application  was  made  and  a  pas- 
sage secured  for  them  on  board  the  ( ( Argo, ' '  the 
French  mail  steamer  plying  between  Mauritius, 
Bourbon,  Madagascar,  and  Mayotta.  She  was 
expected  in  a  few  days,  and  all  preparations  were 
completed  by  the  time  she  appeared  steaming 
from  the  north  into  the  harbor.  But  just  at  the 
last  moment  a  note  was  sent  from  the  commander 
of  the  "  Forfait "  to  the  agent  of  the  "Argo,"  an 
Englishman,  to  say  that  the  ambassadors  were  not 
to  be  allowed  to  go  on  board,  even  though  their 
passage  money  had  been  paid  and  their  names 
entered  on  the  ship's  papers.  No  reason  was  as- 
signed for  the  action,  and  it  appears  to  have  been 
a  gratuitous  insult  offered  to  them  to  show  how 
powerful  a  man  a  French  naval  commander  is. 
It  was  said  afterwards  that  they  had  not  been  ac- 
credited to  the  French  commissioner  as  special 
envoys  of  the  Queen  of  Madagascar,  and  hence 
they  could  not  be  recognized  as  such  by  leaving 
in  a  French  mail  steamer;  and,  therefore,  they 
appear  to  have  been  considered  unfit  subjects  to 
take  a  passage  privately  on  board  a  vessel  plying 

Madagascar  and  France.  Q 


144  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

for  passengers  of  any  kind  so  long  as  the  fare  was 
paid. 

They,  however,  were  able  to  leave  in  a  bul- 
lock steamer  after  nearly  a  month's  detention  at 
Tamatave,  and  arrived  at  Marseilles  without  fur- 
ther trouble  on  October  7,  1882,  where  they  were 
immediately  taken  charge  of  by  M.  Roux,  the 
Malagasy  consul  in  Paris,  and  treated  with  every 
honor  and  a  considerable  amount  of  courtesy. 
They  were  conducted  to  the  capital  with  all  des- 
patch, and  a  commission,  consisting  of  M.  Decrais, 
M.  Billot,  and  Admiral  Peyron,  was  appointed  to 
confer  with  them.  The  first  conference  took  place 
on  October  17,  when  it  became  evident  that  the 
Malagasy  envoys,  even  if  they  were  called  by  one 
of  the  commission  "  barbarians,"  were  still  pos- 
sessed of  that  native  keenness  which  enabled  them 
clearly  to  discern  justice  from  injustice,  and  that 
they  were  not  likely  to  submit  to  terms  which  in 
the  least  endangered  the  welfare  and  independence 
of  their  country.  An  honest  endeavor  was  made 
by  the  envoys  to  "acquit  themselves  worthily  of 
a  civilized  and  Christian  nation,"  and  to  an  un- 
biased mind  they  succeeded  in  putting  these  qual- 
ities in  favorable  contrast  with  the  action  of  their 
detractors.  Their  own  graphic  description  of  the 
treatment  they  received  in  Paris,  contained  in  a 
letter  to  Lord  Granville,  tells  its  own  tale. 


THE  EMBASSY  TO  EUROPE.  145 


"  On  our  arrival  in  Paris,"  they  say,  "  we  re- 
quested to  be  permitted  to  pay  our  respects  to  his 
excellency  the  President  of  the  French  Republic, 
but  we  were  informed  through  our  consuls,  who 
have  resigned  since  our  arrival  in  London,  that 
his  excellency  would  only  receive  us  after  coming 
to  an  agreement  as  to  all  the  matters  in  dispute. 
Prompted  by  a  desire  for  peace  and  reconciliation, 
we  immediately  commenced  negotiations  with  the 
three  special  commissioners,  and  during  six  weeks 
we  vainly  put  forward  the  arguments  and  facts 
'showing  that  France  had  no  just  claim  to  any 
portion  of  the  mainland  of  Madagascar. '  "  On  the 
26th  of  November  the  French  Foreign  Office  in- 
sisted upon  the  signing  of  an  ultimatum,  by  which 
France  would  have  a  right  of  protectorate  over 
the  west  coast  of  Madagascar,  with  general  rights 
over  the  whole  island. 

It  appears  from  the  statement  of  the  ambassa- 
dors to  Lord  Granville  that  a  verbal  suggestion 
had  been  made  to  them  on  the  part  of  the  French 
commissioners,  to  the  effect  that  the  French  Gov- 
ernment would  be  satisfied  011  the  "protectorate 
question"  if,  "to  save  the  dignity  of  France,  the 
Hova  Government  would  withdraw  their  custom- 
houses from  Dalrymple  Bay,  opposite  Nosi-be,  for 
a  time,  upon  the  understanding  that  they  should 
be  free  to  garrison  the  coast  again  in  a  few  years' 


146  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

time."*  The  Hova  ambassadors,  on  the  part  of 
their  Government,  agreed  to  these  terms,  and  de- 
sired that  they  should  be  reduced  to  writing  for 
signature.  This  was  nothing  but  a  most  reason- 
able request,  and  it  was  acceded  to  by  the  French 
commissioners.  But  when  the  document  was 
drawn  up  and  brought  to  the  ambassadors  for  sig- 
nature, what  was  their  surprise  and  disappoint- 
ment to  find  that  not  only  had  all  mention  of  any 
provision  for  the  reestablishment  of  Hova  au- 
thority been  omitted,  but  the  document  provided 
for  the  establishment  of  a  protectorate  over  the 
whole  island. 

"  As  it  was  impossible  for  us  to  sign  this,  and 
thus  betray  the  independence  of  our  country,  we 
were  immediately  informed  that  we  were  no  long- 
er considered  as  the  guests  of  France,  and  that 
our  flag  must  be  removed  from  the  hotel.  Having 
received  this  message,  and  witnessed  the  removal 
of  our  flag  against  our  will,  we  left  Paris  for 
London,  "f 

During  the  six  weeks  that  they  stayed  as  the 
guests  of  France  the  envoys  were  practically 
prisoners,  watched  and  guarded  by  vigilant  sen- 
tries in  the  shape  of  lackeys  to  warn  off  the  ap- 
proach of  any  who  might  interfere  with  the  right 


*  Lord  Granville's  Despatch  to  Lord  Lyons,  1,  "Africa,"  1883, 
p.  29.  f  "Africa,"  No.  1,  1883. 


THE  EMBASSY  TO  EUROPE.  147 

development  of  the  Republic's  plans.  Some  sym- 
pathizers, and  one  or  two  personal  friends  of  the 
envoys,  went  from  London  to  visit  them  in  their 
hotel,  but  were  not  admitted  into  their  presence; 
and  the  letters  of  introduction,  even  if  not  opened 
by  their  gaolers,  were  at  any  rate  examined  by 
them  before  any  reply  could  be  sent  to  the  re- 
quest for  an  interview. 

After  such  treatment  it  is  not  surprising  that 
a  sense  of  relief  took  possession  of  the  embassy 
when  they  quitted  Paris  for  England,  where  a 
very  different  reception  was  accorded  them,  and 
where  they,  in  common  with  all  nations,  found 
that,  notwithstanding  differences  of  opinion  po- 
litically, no  intentional  insult  would  be  offered  to 
the  flag  of  those  who  were  accepting  the  hos- 
pitality of  the  nation. 

"Leaving  Paris,  where  they  must  have  felt 
themselves  to  be  strangers  in  a  strange  land,  they 
crossed  over  to  England  and  proceeded  to  Lon- 
don, and  there  soon  found  a  welcome  from  mis- 
sionaries whom  they  had  known  in  Madagascar, 
and  from  a  large  number  of  their  friends  who  had 
long  taken  an  interest  in  their  country."* 

On  December  2  the  ambassadors  reported  their 
arrival  to  Lord  Granville,  and  forwarded  to  him 

*  "Missionary  Chronicle,"  of  the  London  Missionary  Society, 
1883,  p.  12. 


148  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

their  credentials,  which  accredited  them  as  1 c  Am- 
bassadors Extraordinary  and  Plenipotentiary  to 
the  Court  of  Her  most  Gracious  Majesty  Vic- 
toria, Queen  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and 
Empress  of  India. ' '  They  expressed  the  pleasure 
they  felt  on  setting  foot  in  the  country  to  which 
they  have  been  so  greatly  indebted  in  the  past, 
and  gave  expression  to  similar  sentiments  as  a 
message  from  their  queen.  "The  queen,  our 
mistress, "  they  say,  u  in  confiding  this  mission 
to  us,  has  bid  us  express  our  feelings  of  gratitude 
to  a  great  nation  which  has  ever  been  the  firm 
friend  of  Madagascar;  and  we  can  assure  your 
lordship  that  the  object  of  our  present  visit  is  to 
consolidate  and  cement  those  friendly  relations 
which  have  always  existed  between  our  respect- 
ive Governments."  The  objects  of  their  mission 
were  set  forth  clearly  and  succinctly,  without  im- 
plying a  request  that  England  would  take  up 
their  cause,  further  than  would  be  prompted  by 
her  own  inclinations  after  hearing  the  statements 
of  the  envoys.  They  simply  came  to  lay  ' 1  before 
her  Britannic  Majesty's  Government  the  unfor- 
tunate relations  now  existing  between  our  Gov- 
ernment and  that  of  France,"  and  "to  propose  a 
revision  of  the  treaty  between  Great  Britain  and 
Madagascar,  whereby  we  hope  to  facilitate  the 
commercial  relations  between  our  respective  sub- 


THE  EMBASSY  TO  EUROPE.  149 

jects,  and  to  settle  more  definitely  any  questions 
upon  which  there  may  now  exist  differences  of 
opinion."* 

Efforts  had  been  made  by  the  friends  of  Mad- 
agascar to  pave  the  way  for  the  favorable  recep- 
tion of  the  envoys  before  their  arrival  on  our 
shores,  and  to  facilitate  the  objects  they  had  at 
heart. 

The  London  Missionary  Society  had  memo- 
rialized Lord  Granville,  giving  details  of  the  work 
which  has  been  accomplished  in  and  for  Mad- 
agascar by  its  agents  from  1818,  when  its  people 
wTere  found  to  be  warlike  barbarians,  down  to  the 
present  time,  when  such  marked  progress  has 
been  made  both  socially,  politically,  and  reli- 
giously. 

Almost  simultaneously  with  the  landing  of  the 
embassay  a  large  and  influential  deputation  waited 
upon  Lord  Granville,  and  in  concise,  telling 
speeches  such  men  as  Sir  Henry  Barkly,  a  former 
Governor  of  Mauritius,  and  Bishop  Ryan,  at  one 
time  Bishop  of  Mauritius,  endeavored  to  show 
why  Her  Majesty's  Government  should  use  its 
best  endeavors  to  bring  about  a  peaceable  solution. 
This  was  done  by  setting  forth  the  increasing 
trade  between  Madagascar  and  Mauritius,  which, 
so  far  as  the  imports  are  concerned,  supplies  the 

*  "  Africa,"  No  1,  1SS3,  p.  21. 


150  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

latter  island  with  many  articles  of  the  greatest  ne- 
cessity, as  beef,  rice,  etc. ;  by  noticing  that  if  the 
French  gained  a  protectorate  over  the  northwest 
coast,  there  was  little  doubt  that  the  remainder 
of  the  island  would  soon  come  under  the  same 
rule,  and  that  rule  we  are  not  in  the  habit  of 
looking  upon  as  very  enlightened  or  friendly.  It 
was  pointed  out  by  the  bishop,  who  was  present 
at  the  signing  of  the  treaty  in  1862,  that  Radama 
was  called  King  of  Madagascar  by  M.  Dupre. 
He  also  remarked  that  "  nothing  can  be  more  re- 
markable than  the  way  in  which  civilization  has 
been  introduced,  chiefly  through  the  efforts  of 
England,  into  Madagascar.  One  society  that 
went  there  found  that  the  natives  had  no  written 
language;  they  gave  them  one.  It  is  not  only 
the  London  Missionary  Society  that  is  working 
there,  but  other  societies  also.  There  is  a  bishop 
there.  So  that  in  various  ways  England  is  en- 
deavoring to  promote  civilization.7' 

Lord  Granville,  in  replying,  made  one  or  two 
very  important  statements  bearing  upon  the  case, 
but  which,  unfortunately,  have  not  been  acted  up 
to.  After  noting  that  the  serious  attention  of  that 
country  was  first  attracted  to  Madagascar  in  181 7, 
when  the  treaty  already  referred  to  on  page  113 
was  signed  with  Radama  I.  with  a  view  to  the 
suppression  of  the  slave-trade,  his  lordship  made 


THE  EMBASSY  TO  EUROPE.  151 

this  statement:  "  In  1850  Lord  Palmerston  recog- 
nized the  right  of  the  French  to  the  island  of  No- 
si-be.  In  1853-4  there  were  discussions  between 
the  two  Governments,  which  resulted  in  the  un- 
derstanding that  neither  would  take  action  wTith 
reo-ard  to  Madagascar  without  previous  consulta- 
tion  with  the  other.  Later  on  this  understanding 
was  recognized.  In  1858-9  to  1S62-3  most  concil- 
iatory assurances  were  given.  With  regard  to  the 
French  protectorate  over  a  great  portion  of  the 
island  all  I  can  say  is  that,  as  at  present  advised, 
I  am  not  aware  of  any  treaty  which  gives  such  a 
right  to  France. n 

A  committee  was  also  formed  in  England,  con- 
sisting of  very  many  of  the  most  influential  friends 
of  Madagascar  and  of  aboriginal  races  generally, 
for  the  purpose  of  keeping  that  country  informed 
of  the  progress  of  events  affecting  the  welfare  of 
the  Malagasy.  It  was  to  cooperate  and  second 
the  efforts  made  by  the  embassy  to  secure  the 
good-will  and  good  offices  of  England  towards 
the  settlement  of  the  difficulty  and  misunder- 
standing between  the  French  and  Malagasy  Gov- 
ernments. From  this  committee  emanated  a 
couple,  at  least,  of  well-written  and  exhaustive 
pamphlets,  setting  forth  in  an  impartial  light  the 
real  value  of  the  so-called  14 rights  of  France"  to 
a  protectorate  over  the  whole  or  any  part  of  the 


152  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

island.  A  memorial  was  also  sent  to  the  Foreign 
Secretary,  on  behalf  of  the  committee,  signed  by 
the  chairman,  A.  Mc Arthur,  Esq.,  M.  P.,  the  sec- 
retary, F.  W.  Chesson,  Esq. ,  and  the  treasurer,  G. 
Palmer,  Esq.,  inclosing  one  of  the  "Madagascar 
Tracts ' '  drawing  attention  to  one  or  two  matters 
of  importance  in  the  consideration  of  the  subject. 
The  memorial  points  out  that  it  was  impossible 
for  the  ambassadors  to  accede  to  the  demands  put 
forward  by  the  French  commissioners  unless  they 
were  prepared  to  sacrifice  the  independence  of 
their  country.  After  reverting  to  the  untenable 
nature  of  the  claims  under  the  treaty  which  the 
French  assert  was  signed  in  1840,  they  point  out 
that  "  there  are  five  times  as  many  English  as 
French  subjects  in  Madagascar,  and  that  the 
amount  of  our  trade  with  the  island  is  quadruple 
that  of  the  French.  The  British  people,  from  no 
ulterior  or  unworthy  motives,  have  also  done 
much,  by  means  of  religious  and  educational 
agencies,  to  promote  the  civilization  of  the  na- 
tive population.  They  cannot  look  on  unmoved 
while  this  good  work,  the  result  of  large  expendi- 
ture of  money  as  well  as  of  many  years  of  labor, 
is  exposed  to  the  risk  of  destruction ;  nor  can  they 
contemplate  without  alarm  the  prospect  of  Re- 
union and  other  French  colonies  making  the 
northwest  provinces  of  the  island  the  scene  of  a 


THE  EMBASSY  TO  EUROPE.  153 

traffic  in  African  labor,  which  experience  has 
clearly  shown  to  be  another  form  of  the  slave- 
trade." 

These  are  the  grounds  upon  which  the  com- 
mittee felt  itself  urged  to  ask  Lord  Granville  to 
use  every  endeavor  to  bring  about  a  speedy  and 
satisfactory  settlement  of  the  difficulty.  It  was 
seen  that  not  only  would  a  war  interfere  with  the 
continued  progress  of  the  Malagasy,  but  it  would 
also  seriously  affect  the  welfare  of  British  residents 
in  the  country  and  the  colonists  in  Mauritius.  It 
was  hoped  by  the  committee  that  France  might 
be  willing  to  submit  the  case  to  arbitration,  and 
the  misunderstanding  be  arranged  without  re- 
course to  arms.  It  would  assuredly  have  been 
more  to  the  credit  of  a  great  nation  like  the 
French  had  they  thus  arranged  the  matter,  rather 
than  to  try  to  obtain  a  shadowy  ray  of  glory  by 
the  overthrow  of  a  weak,  struggling  nation  like 
the  Malagasy. 

Lord  Granville  not  only  acquiesced  in  the 
principle  involved  in  the  various  requests  made 
to  him  to  exert  his  influence  with  the  French 
Government  to  bring  about  a  peaceable  settle- 
ment of  the  difficulty,  but  he  had  already  made 
application  through  Viscount  Lyons  to  M.  Du- 
clerc  for  the  grounds  upon  which  the  French  ac- 
tion in  Madagascar  was  being  taken. 


154  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

Upon  the  request  of  Lord  Granville,  M.  Du- 
clerc  furnished  Lord  Lyons  with  the  view  of  the 
French  Government  regarding  the  proceedings  of 
their  forces  on  the  coast  of  Madagascar.  But  the 
only  reason  given  for  their  action  is  the  most  gen- 
eral and  obscure:  "A  long  time  ago  the  failure  of 
the  Court  of  Imerina  to  carry  out  the  engagements 
which  bind  it  to  us  gave  rise  to  the  commence- 
ment of  negotiations,  during  the  course  of  which 
the  Government  of  Queen  Ranavalona  has  not 
always  shown  that  conciliatory  and  favorable  dis- 
position which  we  had  a  right  to  expect  from 
it.  Meanwhile  we  had  to  draw  its  attention  to 
measures  taken  at  its  instigation  which  affect  the 
rights  secured  to  France  by  the  conventions  for- 
merly concluded  by  various  independent  native 
chiefs;  thus,  as  a  particular  instance,  the  flag  of 
the  queen  has  been  improperly  hoisted  on  terri- 
tories situated  to  the  northwest  of  Madagascar 
which  have  come  under  our  protectorate  by  vir- 
tue of  existing  treaties. " 

With  regard  to  this  it  may  be  said  that  the 
Malagasy  Government  has  been  most  anxious  to 
carry  out  its  engagement  with  France,  except, 
perhaps,  the  French  claims  of  liberty  to  purchase 
land.  But  as  this  is  opposed  to  the  law  of  the 
country,  and  has  been  so  from  the  earliest  times, 
it  is  quite  certain  that  the  Malagasy  Government 


THE  EMBASSY  TO  EUROPE.  155 

did  not  so  read  the  treaty  of  1868,  upon  the  letter 
of  which  the  French  base  this  right.  No  Eng- 
lishman ever  pretended  to  have  the  right  of  ac- 
quiring freehold.  Then,  with  regard  to  the  "dis- 
position ' '  of  the  Government  towards  the  French 
subjects,  it  is  well  known  by  those  who  have 
lived  for  any  length  of  time  in  the  island  that  in 
their  anxiety  for  peace  and  good-will  the  native 
officials  have  granted,  against  their  judgment, 
French  demands  which  have  not  been  conceded 
to  Englishmen,  because,  as  the  people  say,  the 
French  seemed  to  be  always  anxious  to  carry 
some  complaint  to  their  consul  which  might  be 
made  a  matter  of  diplomatic  correspondence  with 
a  view  to  embroiling  the  two  Governments. 

Air.  Pickersgill  gives  a  case  in  point.  He 
says,  "I  was  complaining  to  the  Prime  Minister 
of  a  Frenchman  being  permitted  to  retain  posses- 
sion of  land  which  he  had  obtained  illegally,  while 
I  and  others  had  been  obliged  to  comply  with  the 
law,  and  I  was  begged  to  look  at  the  matter  from 
a  Malagasy  point  of  view.  1  You  see  how  we  are 
situated,'  said  the  Prime  Minister.  1  If  we  offend 
a  Frenchman  he  immediately  appeals  to  his  con- 
sul, and  the  consul  threatens  us  with  bombard- 
ment. We  regard  you  as  our  best  friends,  but 
have  oftentimes  to  treat  you  with  scant  considera- 
tion in  order  to  keep  the  peace.    If  all  the  threats 


I56  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

of  bombardment  made  by  France's  representatives 
had  been  put  into  execution  there  would  now  be 
little  of  the  island  left  above  the  surface  of  the 
Indian  Ocean  for  anybody  to  claim.'  "* 

With  regard  to  the  latter  part  of  M.  Duclerc's 
communication,  it  has  been  shown  in  the  last 
chapter  how  much  u  independence"  was  enjoyed 
by  the  chiefs  with  whom  France  treated,  and  how 
much  value  was  to  be  attached  to  the  right  of 
protectorate. 

In  reply  to  this,  Lord  Granville  sent  a  request 
to  the  French  Government,  asking  to  be  informed 
to  what  treaties  M.  Duclerc  alluded  "as  ceding  to 
France  the  protectorate  of  certain  territories  on 
the  northwest  coast  of  the  island. ' '  This  request 
for  information  was  tendered  on  August  28,  but  no 
reply  being  forthcoming,  Lord  Granville  writes 
again  on  October  7  to  Mr.  Plunkett,  who  ad- 
dresses a  note  to  the  French  Government  men- 
tioning the  former  request,  and  stating  that  uas  at 
present  advised,  Her  Majesty's  Government  are 
unaware  of  any  treaty  stipulations  in  virtue  of 
which  the  French  Government  claim  territorial 
jurisdiction  over  any  part  of  the  mainland  of 
Madagascar,"  and  also  intimating  the  fact  which- 
Lord  Granville  also  mentioned  to  the  deputation 
who  waited  upon  him  in  November.    c '  Your  ex- 

*  "  Madagascar  Tracts,"  No.  2,  p.  15,  by  W.  C.  Pickersgill,  Esq. 


THE  EMBASSY  TO  EUROPE.  157 

cellency,"  says  Mr.  Plunkett  to  M.  Duclerc,  "is 
also  aware  that  the  understanding  between  Great 
Britain  and  France  has  hitherto  been  that  the 
two  Governments  should  maintain  an  identic  at- 
titude of  policy  in  Madagascar,  and  act  in  con- 
cert in  the  matter,  and  your  excellency  will  have 
no  difficulty  in  understanding  the  regret  with 
which  Her  Majesty's  Government  would  view 
the  advancement,  on  the  part  of  France,  of  any 
territorial  claims  which  might  be  calculated  to 
disturb  that  understanding. ' ' 

Still  the  French  President  did  not  feel  himself 
called  upon  to  answer  the  question,  nor  respond 
to  the  intimation  of  the  arrangement  for  an  "iden- 
tic attitude  of  policy  on  the  part  of  the  two  Gov- 
ernments." Offers  were  made  by  the  English 
Government  to  act  as  mediators,  but  M.  Duclerc 
took  umbrage  at  the  repeated  offers  of  assistance 
in  this  direction  on  the  part  of  this  Government, 
and  instead  of  urgently  remonstrating  against  the 
indignity  put  upon  an  Anglo-French  agreement, 
the  Foreign  Secretary  tried  to  explain  away  his 
own  words,  lest  France  should  be  offended  at 
England  asking  that  agreements  should  be  acted 
upon. 

The  iteration  of  the  idea  of  mediation  seems 
to  have  offended  the  extreme  sensitiveness  of  the 
French  Minister,  who  replies,  "The  English  Gov- 


158  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE). 

ernmetit  exactly  appreciates  the  state  of  affairs 
when  it  rejects  the  idea  of  offering  a  mediation 
which  the  differences  do  not  admit  of.  This  dec- 
laration dispenses  us  from  laying  stress  upon  an- 
other expression  in  the  English  note.  I  do  not 
know  what  the  English  Government  means  by 
1  to  press  their  good  offices  upon  the  French  Gov- 
ernment,' but  to  us  this  expression  is  untransla- 
table in  French,  for  the  word  which  would  be 
the  literal  translation  would  be  absolutely  inad- 
missible."* 

Eord  Granville,  in  reply  to  this,  sends  the  ex- 
planation "that  the  phrase  was  only  intended  to 
convey  that  Her  Majesty's  Government,  while 
they  were  ready  to  give  their  assistance  in  bring- 
ing about  an  understanding,  had  no  desire  to  put 
forward  an  offer  of  such  assistance  if  it  was  not 
acceptable  to  France." 

An  admirable  letter  of  Dr.  Dawson  Burns  to 
Lord  Granville  expresses  very  much  the  same 
feeling.  He  says,  "It  follows,  that  in  acting 
alone,  and  in  a  manner  injurious  both  to  Mad- 
agascar and  ourselves,  the  French  Government 
had  violated  this  understanding,  and  had  exposed 
itself  to  such  urgent  remonstrances  as  should,  not 
have  been  without  practical  result.  If  it  be  asked 
whether  we  were  prepared  to  go  to  war  for  such  a 

*  M.  Duclerc's  Despatch  of  January  4,  1883. 


THE  EMBASSY  TO  EUROPE.  1 59 

cause?  the  answer  is  clear  that  long:  before  the 
question  of  peace  or  war  would  have  come  up  for 
consideration  France  must  have  receded  from  a 
position  alike  offensive  to  England  and  menacing 
to  Madagascar.  The  position  of  France  in  Europe 
is  such  as  not  to  render  her  careless  of  the  good 
or  evil  opinion  of  England  on  a  subject  in  which 
her  course  is  so  manifestly  wrong;  and  I  cannot 
but  think  that  a  tone  at  once  temperate,  but 
emphatic  and  earnest,  would  have  issued  in  a 
change  of  policy  averting  the  bombardment  of 
Tamatave  and  the  cessation  of  intercourse  be- 
tween Madagascar  and  all  friendly  powers. ' ' 

It  seems  to  have  been  a  case  preeminently 
suited  for  friendly  arbitration,  more  especially  as 
M.  Duclerc  declares  that  the  conference  with  the 
Malagasy  envoys  "  was  broken  off  on  the  question 
of  the  right  of  property,  and  on  the  interpretation 
of  the  clauses  of  our  treaty  of  1868,  which  secures 
the  benefits  of  it  to  our  countrymen."  The  Mal- 
agasy have  shown  themselves  willing,  in  the  re- 
vision of  the  treaty  with  England,  to  make  very 
considerable  concessions  on  this  matter:  and  if  it 
was  on  this  ground  only  that  the  negotiations  were 
broken  off,  it  seems  to  have  required  nothing  but 
the  "offices  of  England"  as  mediator  to  have 
brought  about  a  peaceful  solution.  M.  Duclerc' s 
statement,  referred  to  above,  from  his  despatch  to 
10 


160  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

M.  Tissot,  to  be  communicated  to  Lord  Granville, 
is  altogether  at  variance  with  the  statement  of 
the  ambassadors,  and  is  negatived  by  their  action 
in  England  and  America. 

It  is  true  that  by  the  revised  treaty  English- 
men cannot  acquire  the  freehold  of  land  in  Mad- 
agascar, but  they  are  at  liberty  to  make  leases  for 
any  length  of  time  mutually  agreed  upon  between 
them  and  the  owners.  Thus,  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses, the  difficulties  of  planters  and  settlers  are 
met  satisfactorily.  It  is  against  the  law  of  the 
country  for  a  Malagasy  to  sell  the  freehold  to  a 
foreigner,  and  this  law  was  in  force  long  before 
the  signing  of  the  French  treaty  in  1868,  which 
is  a  fact  now  forgotten  by  the  French  Ministry. 
It  is  one  of  the  "ancient  laws  and  customs  of  the 
country  that  foreigners  cannot  maintain  a  fee- 
simple  title  to  land  in  Madagascar,"  and  the  only 
ground  on  which  France  claims  it  is  based  on 
Article  IV.,  which  provides  that  "they  shall  be 
able,  as  the  subjects  of  the  most  favored  nation, 
and  in  conformity  to  the  laws  and  customs  of  the 
country,  to  settle  wherever  they  may  deem  ad- 
visable, to  lease  land,  to  purchase  all  kind  of  per- 
sonal property,  and  to  engage  in  all  commercial 
and  industrial  operations  which  are  not  interdicted 
by  the  Government  of  the  country." 

It  is  difficult  to  understand  how  the  French 


THE  EMBASSY  TO  EUROPE.  l6l 

can  on  this  article,  circumscribed  by  the  well- 
known  law  of  the  land,  claim  a  right  to  purchase 
the  freehold  of  property.  Neither  can  this  law  of 
the  Malagasy  be  looked  upon  as  an  outrageous 
assumption  in  opposition  to  foreigners.  In  Great 
Britain,  as  Lord  Granville  argues  with  M.  Du- 
clerc,^>nly  a  few  years  ago  no  alien  could  possess 
the  fee-simple  to  real  property,  and  the  only  com- 
promise that  could  be  resorted  to  in  such  cases 
was  to  grant  such  leases  as  would  convey  as  near- 
ly as  might  be  all  the  advantages  of  a  freehold. 
Yet,  despite  European  usage,  even  when  backed 
by  the  customs  of  such  a  country  as  England,  the 
Freneh  are  not  willing  to  admit  that  the  Mala- 
gasy have  any  right  to  their  own  laws,  if  they 
happen  to  restrict  the  greed  of  French  adven- 
turers. For  M.  Duclerc  maintains  that  "as  to 
the  right  of  property,  the  domestic  legislation  of 
the  Hova  nation  cannot  override  the  engagements 
resulting  from  a  convention  regularly  concluded." 
(Surely  it  is  the  interpretation  of  the  convention 
which  is  sought  here  to  be  used  to  override  the 
domestic  legislation.)  " The  convention  is  the 
only  rule  applicable  to  the  relations  between  the 
two  contracting  Governments. ' ' 

The  correspondence  in  the 1 '  Blue  Book ' '  shows 
how  much  the  ambassadors  had  been  led  to  expect 
from  the  advice  and  help  of  England.    And  the 


i6z 


MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


carefully  guarded  expressions  of  cold  sympathy 
send  a  thrill  of  pity  to  the  heart  for  those  who,  in 
their  endeavor  to  act  in  righteousness,  serving 
their  God  and  the  country  he  has  given  them, 
met  with  so  little  encouragement,  notwithstand- 
ing the  concessions  they  were  willing  to  make  in 
the  interests  of  peace  and  the  spread  of  Christian- 
ity. 

That  the  land  question  need  not  have  been 
treated  as  such  an  insurmountable  obstacle  to 
peace  is  seen  by  the  willingness  evinced  by  the 
ambassadors  to  admit  alterations  in  the  existing 
treaties  giving  greater  facilities  to  the  foreigner. 
The  wording  of  our  own  revised  treaty  referring 
to  this  matter  is  very  clear  and  broad:  "Her  Maj- 
esty the  Queen  of  Madagascar  fully  allows  her 
subjects  the  right  of  renting  or  leasing  such  prop- 
erty according  to  their  own  pleasure  and  accord- 
ing to  the  terms  of  time  and  money  which  may 
be  agreed  upon  between  lessor  and  lessee.  But  it 
shall  be  distinctly  understood  that  Malagasy  sub- 
jects are  prohibited  by  the  laws  of  their  country 
from  the  absolute  sale  of  land  to  foreigners,  .  .  . 
and  Her  Majesty  the  Queen  of  Madagascar  enga- 
ges that  British  subjects  shall,  as  far  as  lies  in  her 
power,  enjoy  within  her  dominions  full  and  com- 
plete protection  and  security  for  themselves  and 
for  any  property  which  they  may  so  acquire  in  fu- 


THE  EMBASSY  TO  EUROPE.  163 

ture,  or  which  they  may  have  already  acquired 
before  the  date  at  which  the  present  article  shall 
come  into  force. " 

In  the  American  treaty  the  fact  that  foreigners 
cannot  own  land  is  clearly  stated  as  a  kind  of  pre- 
amble to  a  like  concession  to  the  above:  "Accord- 
ing to  the  laws  of  Madagascar  from  all  time,  Mal- 
agasy lands  cannot  be  sold  to  foreigners,  and 
therefore  the  citizens  and  proteges  of  the  United 
States  of  America  are  prohibited  from  purchasing 
lands  in  Madagascar.''  To  an  impartial  onlooker 
there  is  no  further  cause  for  insistence  on  more 
liberal  terms.  For  all  the  practical  purposes  of 
trade  and  commerce  these  concessions  are  equal 
to  a  freehold  possession — any  length  of  lease  that 
the  owner  and  foreigner  can  agree  upon,  and  no 
Government  interference  to  prevent  an  indefinite 
number  of  renewals. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  under  this  head  that 
the  "Madagascar  Times,"  published  in  Antana- 
narivo, bears  witness  to  the  effective  working  of 
the  new  clause.  In  the  issue  for  April  2,  1884,  is 
the  following  paragraph:  "Every  one  that  we 
know  of  who  applies  for  land  gets  it.  The  Amer- 
icans are  procuring  land  on  the  basis  of  their  new 
treaty,  and  inform  us  that  they  are  very  well  sat- 
isfied. 

"We  are  informed  that  the  Malagasy  Govern- 


164  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

ment  is  preparing  a  thorough  system  for  provi- 
ding governors  with  printed  forms  and  registers, 
and  for  appointing  a  commissioner  whose  work 
will  be  to  visit  outlying  districts  and  regulate  all 
matters  connected  with  the  leasing  of  land. 

4 'As  to  Crown  lands,  let  the  foreigners  who 
require  lands  make  out  their  application  with  all 
the  straightforward  and  formal  precision  that  is 
exacted  in  other  countries;  let  that  application  be 
submitted  to  the  governor  of  the  district  and  to 
the  consular  representative  there,  if  there  is  one. 
If  hindrances  or  uncalled-for  delays  are  wilfully 
thrown  in  the  way,  or  flagrant  acts  of  bad  faith 
are  evident,  then  let  appeal  be  made  to  Antana- 
narivo, and  we  are  certain  no  person  who  wishes 
to  have  land  will  be  refused. ' ' 

This  is  just  the  kind  of  assurance  which  has 
always  been  wanting  hitherto.  Companies  have 
again  and  again  been  talked  of  for  planting,  cat- 
tle-rearing, and  manufacture;  but  they  have  never 
been  developed  because  of  the  insuperable  diffi- 
culty regarding  the 'land.  But  under  the  present 
provisions  of  the  treaty  the  only  obstacle  to  the 
success  of  such  companies  in  Madagascar,  so  far 
as  the  native  Government  is  concerned,  has  been 
removed.  Apart  from  present  disturbances  with 
tha  French,  there  is  no  reason  why  coffee,  rice, 
vanilla,  spice,  sago,  and  fibre-planting  should  not 


THE  EMBASSY  TO  EUROPE.  165 

be  carried  out  on  a  large  and  highly  profitable 
scale;  while  the  vast  extent  of  prairie  and  pasture 
land  presents  a  tempting  prospect  for  the  forma- 
tion of  cattle  ranches  in  a  country  where  fat  oxen 
can  be  purchased  from  three  dollars  and  upwards, 
according  to  the  district. 

While  the  ambassadors  made,  on  behalf  of 
their  Government,  concessions  regarding  the  leas- 
ing of  land,  all  well-wishers  of  the  aboriginal 
races  will  rejoice  in  the  improved  position  of  the 
liquor-traffic  conceded  to  them  by  the  British  and 
American  Governments.  For  years  past  this  has 
been  one  of  the  crying  evils  in  Madagascar,  espe- 
cially on  the  coast.  England  has  gone  with  her 
arts  and  civilization,  with  her  missionaries  and 
the  Bible,  to  raise  the  barbarians  and  Christianize 
the  heathen;  but  at  the  same  time  she  has  allowed 
her  subjects  to  import  into  the  country  the  rum 
which  was  to  undo  much  of  the  good  she  was  try- 
ing to  accomplish. 

When  on  the  way  to  Madagascar  for  the  first 
time,  I  was  told  in  Mauritius  by  the  representa- 
tive of  one  of  the  largest  firms  that  "the  trade 
with  Madagascar  was  spoiled,  and  had  been 
ruined  by  the  missionaries."  I  quietly  dissent- 
ed, but  not  knowing  anything  of  the  country  then 
I  could  say  very  little;  but  I  remembered  it  is 
usually  admitted  that  each  missionary  going  to 


1 66  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

an  uncivilized  country  like  Madagascar  is  the  pi- 
oneer of  civilization,  trade,  and  commerce,  all  of 
which  accompany  the  introduction  of  Christian- 
ity. I  could  now  answer  my  informant  by  saying 
that  it  is  not  the  missionaries,  but  themselves, 
whom  the  merchants  must  thank  for  the  want  of 
speedy  progress  in  commercial  pursuits,  and  that 
rum  has  been  the  means  they  have  employed  to 
spoil  the  trade.  Rum  always  finds  a  ready  sale 
here,  and  fetches  a  good  profit.  "It  is, "  to  use 
the  expression  of  a  trader  recen'ly  in  Madagascar, 
uas  good  as  ready  money;"  and  this  tempted  the 
first  importers. 

Missionaries  in  the  interior  of  the  island  de- 
plore the  effect  upon  their  people  of  the  manufac- 
ture and  sale  of  native  rum ;  but  that  is  a  very 
mild  spirit  compared  with  the  "  fire-water  "  which 
was  poured  into  the  country  from  Mauritius  and 
Bourbon,  to  the  ruin  of  the  Betsimisaraka.  It  is 
manufactured  from  molasses  and  the  refuse  from 
the  sugar  mills,  and  is  so  crude  and  cheap  that  it 
can  be  retailed  in  Tamatave  at  from  fourpence  to 
sixpence  per  quart.  There  is  great  difficulty  in 
ascertaining  the  quantity  imported ;  but  from 
Mauritius  alone  during  the  year  1881  no  less  than 
10,087  barrels,  containing  more  than  462,915  gal- 
lons of  this  vile  produce,  were  brought  to  the 
country  and  landed  on  the  east  coast  and  Nosi-be. 


THE  EMBASSY  TO  EUROPE.  l6j 

The  native  Government  has  again  and  again 
tried  to  restrict  the  trade,  but  its  efforts  have  been 
ineffectual.  But  it  has  done  something  by  forbid- 
ding, and  to  a  certain  extent  preventing,  the  in- 
troduction of  the  rum  by  the  natives  into  the 
central  provinces.  The  barrels  too  received  as 
customs  duty — which  for  this,  as  for  all  other 
commodities,  is  paid  in  kind — were  returned  to 
Mauritius,  to  be  sold  there  on  account  of  the 
Government;  a  silent  though  ineffectual  protest 
against  a  trade  which  the  Hova  Government  was 
unable  to  resist,  but  which  civilized  nations  up- 
held by  superior  force,  to  the  utter  ruin  of  both 
body  and  soul  of  the  poor,  ignorant  natives,  who 
are  too  inexperienced  to  resist  the  temptation  of 
drinking  themselves  to  death  by  the  product  of 
foreign  commerce,  the  so-called  civilizer. 

But  not  only  are  the  people  being  ruined  body 
and  soul,  not  only  are  they  becoming  so  debauched 
that  they  cultivate  barely  sufficient  rice  to  supply 
their  most  urgent  wants,  but  they  fail  utterly  to 
supply  that  most  pressing  demand  of  the  foreign 
merchant  and  planter — the  labor  market.  As 
long  as  10,000  barrels  of  rum  are  introduced  in 
one  year  and  drunk  by  a  people  numbering  not 
more  than  three-quarters  of  a  million,  it  is  vain 
for  the  planter  to  look  for  constant,  regular,  and 
trustworthy  labor  among  these  people.    But  this 


1 68  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

is  the  lowest  view  of  the  matter.  There  has  been 
a  higher  and  graver  responsibility  resting  upon 
the  British  nation,  who  with  one  hand  have  sent 
the  Bible  and  the  missionaries  to  teach  these  peo- 
ple, and  with  the  other  have  poured  into  the 
country  that  which  washes  out  at  one  sweep  both 
the  moral  and  religious  life  of  the  natives  and 
conducts  them  to  an  early  grave.  It  is  to  the 
disgrace  of  those  speaking  the  English  tongue 
that  it  was  their  voice  which  was  uplifted  to  pre- 
vent the  native  Government  from  imposing  a 
higher  duty  upon  this  importation,  and  so  re- 
stricting in  some  measure  the  evil  effects  upon 
their  people. 

But  the  envoys  succeeded  in  obtaining  such 
concessions  from  the  English  and  American  Gov- 
ernments as  will  enable  them  in  a  great  measure 
to  reduce  the  amount  of  spirit  imported,  or  at  any 
rate  so  increase  it  in  price  as  to  render  it  less  ac- 
cessible than  hitherto  to  the  very  poorest. 

The  clause  in  the  American  treaty  is  by  far 
the  most  liberal,  and  is  not  hedged  in  with  any 
limitations.  "In  regard  to  alcoholic  liquors,  the 
Malagasy  Government  may  regulate  the  importa- 
tion according  to  its  pleasure,  or  prohibit  the  im- 
portation altogether,  or  limit  the  importation  as 
required;  may  levy  as  high  a  duty  as  it  may  see 
fit,  or  make  it  a  misdemeanor  to  sell  or  give  such 


THE  EMBASSY  TO  EUROPE.  1 69 

liquors  to  certain  classes  of  its  subjects. "  We 
could  have  wished  that  the  corresponding  article 
in  the  British  treaty  had  been  equally  favorable 
to  the  native  Government's  desire  to  restrict  this 
traffic. 

The  first  article  in  the  new  rum  treaty,  signed 
May  25,  1883,  says,  "  Spirits  of  all  kinds  may  be 
imported  and  sold  in  Madagascar  by  British  sub- 
jects on  payment  of  the  same  duty  as  that  levied 
by  the  Malagasy  excise  laws  upon  spirits  manu- 
factured in  Madagascar.  The  scale  of  excise 
duty  to  be  levied  upon  spirits  manufactured  in 
Madagascar  shall  be  communicated  by  the  Mala- 
gasy Government  to  Her  Majesty's  consul,  and 
no  change  in  the  excise  duties  shall  affect  British 
subjects  until  after  the  expiration  of  six  months 
from  the  date  at  which  such  notice  shall  have 
been  communicated  by  the  Malagasy  Government 
to  Her  Majesty's  consul."  The  third  article 
states  that,  "The  Malagasy  Government  may 
stop  the  importation  by  British  subjects  into 
Madagascar  of  any  spirits  which  on  examination 
shall  be  proved  to  be  deleterious  to  the  public 
health,  and  they  may  give  notice  to  the  impor- 
ters, consignees,  or  holders  thereof  to  export  the 
same  within  three  months  from  the  date  of  such 
notice;  and  if  this  is  not  done,  the  Malagasy 
Government  may  seise  the  said  spirits  and  may 


170  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

destroy  them,  provided  always  that  in  such  cases 
the  Malagasy  Government  shall  be  bound  to  re- 
fund any  duty  which  may  have  been  already  paid 
thereon." 

This  opens  a  wide  field  for  misunderstandings, 
and  will  prove  a  fruitful  source  of  disputes,  while, 
considering  that  there  is  at  present  no  excise  duty 
in  Madagascar,  every  facility  is  given  for  evading 
the  payment  of  customs  duty  on  the  rum.  And 
what  is  wanted  is  not  a  treaty  to  prohibit  u  dele- 
terious" spirit,  but  one  which  will  make  good 
spirit  too  dear  to  be  used  by  the  poor  people  in 
the  excessive  way  it  has  been  in  the  past.  To 
the  Malagasy,  who  never  drink  spirit  except  in 
such  quantities  as  render  them  intoxicated,  all 
spirits  may  be  legitimately  deemed  ''deleterious" 
by  the  philanthropist.  Once  or  twice,  during  a 
residence  of  thirteen  years  in  Madagascar,  I  have 
known  an  excise  duty  to  be  imposed  of  one  shil- 
ling on  every  bottle  of  spirit  manufactured;  but 
it  has  been  almost  a  dead  letter,  and  if  levied  at 
all,  which  is  doubtful,  it  has  soon  lapsed,  most 
probably  because  the  highest  men  in  the  kingdom 
were  not  averse  to  enrich  their  own  coffers  by  the 
manufacture  and  sale  of  the  native  rum. 


THE  BEGINNING  OF  HOSTILITIES.  171 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  BEGINNING  OF  HOSTILITIES. 

M.  Baudais  leaves  the  Capital.  Bombardment  of  the  Northwest 
Coast.  Rejoicing  of  French  in  Tamatave.  Native  Accounts. 
Effect  in  Tamatave.  Description  of  Tamatave.  Meeting  of 
British  Subjects.  Circular  of  French  Vice-Consul.  M.  Bau- 
dais' reply  to  H.  B.  M.'s  Consul.  The  "  Creuse. "  French 
Officer's  Attack  on  British  Subject.  Governor  Prepares  for 
Struggle.  Ambulance.  Unfavorable  reception  by  French  Au- 
thorities. 

Soon  after  the  hauling  down  of  the  Malagasy 
flags  on  the  northwest  coast  by  the  French,  M. 
Baudais  and  his  secretary  left  for  Tamatave,  and 
shortly  after  his  arrival  news  was  brought  by  the 
"  Argo,"  the  French  mail-packet,  of  the  bombard- 
ment of  several  towns  and  villages  on  the  north- 
west coast.  Great  excitement  immediately  showed 
itself  among  the  French  and  Creole  inhabitants, 
who  have  nothing  to  lose  and  may  gain  by  these 
troubles.  It  was  rumored  that  Anorontsanga,  Am- 
bodimadiro,  and  other  places  had  been  shelled 
and  burned  to  the  ground.  Hand-shakings,  ges- 
ticulations, and  loud  talking  were  the  order  of 
the  day  among  the  French  subjects,  and  great 
was  their  boasting  of  the  prowess  and  bravery  of 
Admiral  Pierre,  who  had,  it  was  said,  reduced  the 


172  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

above-named  places  without  losing  a  man,  while 
the  enemy  had  lost  1,200. 

M.  Baudais  quickly  repaired  to  the  fort  at 
Tamatave,  and  in  reply  to  a  question  of  the  gov- 
ernor, said  he  had  received  a  letter  from  Ad- 
miral Pierre  giving  an  account  of  the  bombard- 
ment. "But,"  said  he,  "that  is  not  my  business, 
but  Admiral  Pierre's.  I  am  your  friend,  and  when 
the  admiral  comes  here  he  will  do  nothing  that 
I  do  not  sanction."  But,  as  the  "Government 
Gazette"  states,  in  commenting  on  this  speech, 
"such  a  foolish  excuse  as  that  could  be  understood 
even  by  an  idiot,  for  it  can  be  seen  that  all  they 
do  is  done  unitedly."*  An  endeavor  was  made, 
without  committing  himself,  to  give  the  governor 
the  idea  that  he,  M.  Baudais,  did  not  approve  of 
the  action  of  Admiral  Pierre,  and  that  nothing  of 
the  kind  was  likely  to  take  place  at  Tamatave. 
This  was  evidently  done  for  the  purpose  of  lull- 
ing the  governor  into  a  false  security  and  of  in- 
suring the  neglect  of  any  precautionary  measures. 

It  may  be  well  here  to  give  an  idea  of  what 
had  really  taken  place  on  the  northwest  coast. 
On  May  7  Admiral  Pierre  arrived  off  Anoront- 
sanga,  and  sent  messengers  on  shore,  who  met 
with  the  governor  at  the  custom-house.  They 
informed  him  that  he,  his  officers  and  soldiers, 

*  "  Ny  Gazety  Malagasy,"  No.  1,  p.  3. 


THE  BEGINNING  OF  HOSTILITIES.  173 

were  to  leave  the  place  and  take  down  the  Hova 
standard:  and  that  if  they  did  not  clear  out  in 
four  hours  the  place  would  be  attacked.  The 
governor  answered  that  the  land  belonged  to 
Ranavalona,  Queen  of  Madagascar,  and  that  he 
had  received  no  orders  to  fight  against  the  French. 
He  asked  them  also  to  produce  the  Sakalava 
who,  they  said,  had  given  them  the  land.  But 
long  before  the  time  assigned,  and  before  the  wo- 
men and  the  sick  could  be  removed,  even  while 
the  governor  was  still  at  the  custom-house,  the 
bombardment  commenced.  The  firing  was  con- 
tinued until  Anorontsanga  and  the  adjacent  vil- 
lages and  towns  were  destroyed. 

On  the  same  day  a  French  man-of-war  ap- 
peared at  Ambodimadiro,  and  the  custom-house 
officers  boarded  as  usual.  They  were  told  that 
the  captain  had  a  message  to  send  into  the  town. 
Accordingly  the  governor  met  the  messengers  at 
the  custom-house,  and  he  was  told  to  vacate  the 
place  with  his  soldiers  wTithin  two  hours, 1 '  for  the 
land  belongs  to  the  Sakalava,"  they  said.  The 
governor  was  ordered  to  haul  down  the  flag,  but 
he  answered  in  similar  language  to  that  of  the 
governor  at  Anorontsanga;  and  in  about  half  an 
hour,  while  the  custom-house  officers" wTere  still  on 
board,  the  place  wras  bombarded,  before  the  sick, 
the  women  and  children,  had  had  time  to  leave. 


174  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

All  in  Tamatave  waited  in  the  greatest  anxi- 
ety for  the  arrival  of  the  French  men-of-war  that 
were  expected  soon  to  make  their  appearance  in 
the  harbor.  The  women  and  children  began  to 
leave  the  town,  to  take  refuge  in  the  interior. 
The  events  of  the  succeeding  fortnight  after  the 
above  news  had  been  received  in  Tamatave  will 
best  be  understood  if  I  make  extracts  from  my 
journal  kept  at  the  time;  but  it  may  help  to  a 
better  understanding  of  the  situation  if  I  first  de- 
scribe in  brief  the  town.  Tamatave  is  built  on  a 
long,  narrow  peninsula  of  sand,  having  an  eastern 
direction,  with  very  deep  bays  on  either  side:  that 
on  the  north  forming  the  harbor,  in  which  ships  of 
the  largest  size  can  find  a  secure  anchorage.  On 
the  peninsula  are  built  the  houses  of  the  European 
and  other  foreign  settlers,  the  largest  facing  the 
principal  street,  Royal  Street,  which  runs  east 
and  west  down  the  centre  of  the  town.  Here  are 
found  the  British,  French,  American,  German, 
and  Italian  Consulates,  with  the  houses  and  stores 
of  the  principal  merchants.  In  another  street 
runing  parallel  with  Royal  Street,  a  little  farther 
south,  live  a  few  storekeepers,  artisans,  clerks,  and 
others.  Still  farther  south  is  the  Betsimisaraka 
part  of  the  town,  in  which  the  houses,  built  in 
defiance  of  all  regularity,  are  composed  for  the 
most  part  of  rushes  or  bamboo.    In  the  centre 


THE  BEGINNING  OF  HOSTILITIES.  177 

stands  the  house  of  the  Betsimisaraka  prince,  in 
whose  compound  is  erected  a  flagstaff  upon  which 
is  hoisted  the  flag  of  the  queen.  For  the  first  500 
or  600  yards  the  compounds  of  the  owners  on  the 
north  side  of  Royal  Street  reach  to  the  sea-beach, 
but  beyond  this  the  street  bends  a  little  to  the 
south  and  leaves  room  between  the  yards  of  the 
traders  and  the  beach  for  the  native  bazaar. 
Here  a  great  number  of  little  houses  as  well  as 
stalls  covered  with  thatch  were  huddled  together, 
in  utter  disregard  of  all  sanitary  precautions,  and 
in  a  way  to  give  every  facility  for  the  whole  place 
being  consumed  if  a  fire  broke  out  in  any  one  of 
the  houses. 

Behind  the  bazaar  to  the  west,  still  keeping 
the  direction  of  the  main  street,  stands  the  Lon- 
don Missionary  Society's  chapel,  built  of  wood, 
and  the  church  of  the  Society  for  the  Propaga- 
tion of  the  Gospel,  a  little  farther  to  the  north. 
At  the  northwest  of  these  buildings,  about  1,000 
yards  distant,  is  the  Hova  fort,  already  described, 
and  beyond  it  was  the  soldiers'  town,  with  an- 
other L.  M.  S.  chapel  in  the  centre.  Following 
Royal  Street  for  about  a  mile  from  the  beach,  one 
found  another  native  town,  inhabited  chiefly  by 
strangers  from  the  capital  and  those  who  made  a 
living  by  supplying  the  wants  of  these  travellers. 
In  the  soldiers'  town  were  about  130  houses,  and 

Madagascar  ami  Prance.  t  t 


178  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

in  the  latter  town,  Antanambao,  about  100,  the 
chapel  being  on  the  north  side.  Between  An- 
tanambao and  the  main  street  are  several  detached 
houses  occupied  by  foreigners  whose  business  is 
in  town,  the  most  distant  of  these  being  the  one 
occupied  by  myself. 

My  compound  is  large,  occupying  about  an 
acre  and  a  half,  in  which  stand  the  dwelling- 
house,  of  wood,  a  bungalow  used  as  dispensary, 
schoolroom,  and  storehouse,  having  at  one  end  a 
belvedere,  from  the  top  of  which  a  good  view  is 
obtained  of  the  whole  country  round  as  well  as  of 
the  harbor  and  the  sea  to  the  south.  Near  to  An- 
tanambao and  southwest  of  my  house,  which  I 
rented  from  Mr.  Aitken,  is  a  long  tract  of  coun- 
try covered  with  low,  bushy  trees  and  extending 
as  far  as  Ivondrona. 

Turning  now  to  my  journal  I  find  that: 
On  Saturday,  May  19,  the  people  heard  the 
news  brought  by  the  "  Argo,"  and  no  small  alarm 
was  felt  among  them.  Some  seemed  afraid  that 
the  French  ships  of  war  were  then  on  their  way 
to  Tamatave,  and  that  at  any  moment  they  might 
be  attacked.  Our  pastors  and  church  members 
were  frequently  at  my  house  asking  for  details, 
and  if  such  and  such  a  rumor  they  had  heard  was 
likely  to  be  true.  I  did  my  best  to  reassure  them, 
and  begged  them  to  rest  patiently  and  trustfully 


THE  BEGINNING  OF  HOSTILITIES.  179 

till  they  were  actually  in  presence  of  the  danger, 
and  not  try  to  meet  it  half  way — a  piece  of  advice 
much  more  easily  given  than  followed.  Many 
were  too  frightened  to  remain  in  Tamatave,  and 
left  in  haste  either  for  Imerina  or  for  some  coun- 
try place  at  a  safe  distance  from  the  probable  field 
of  danger.  Some,  however,  the  evangelist,  the 
schoolmaster,  one  of  the  pastors,  and  the  girls' 
school-teacher,  begged  to  be  allowed  to  take  shel- 
ter in  one  or  other  of  the  out-buildings  in  my 
compound.  This,  after  some  hesitation,  and  not 
without  some  dread  lest  I  should  in  this  be  over- 
stepping the  boundary-line  of  duty  as  a  neutral,  I 
at  length  promised;  and  a  look  of  considerable 
reliei  took  the  place  of  the  scared,  frightened 
gaze  with  which  they  came  to  plead  for  the  small 
protection  I  was  able  to  offer.  (Very  fortunate 
was  it  for  me  that  subsequently  I  was  able  to  in- 
duce all  those  Hovas  who  were  not  actually  sol- 
diers to  leave  the  coast  and  retire  inland,  for  had 
they  remained  there  might  have  been  in  the  eyes 
of  the  French  some  cause  for  the  charge  they  first 
tendered  against  me.)  I  was  engaged  during  a 
great  part  of  the  day  in  receiving  and  allotting 
space  in  my  house  for  the  goods  of  those  who  are, 
in  a  certain  way,  dependent  upon  the  society, 
and  who  have  thus  some  right  to  claim  our  help 
and  sympathy.     Before  night  my  house  looked 


I  So  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

more  like  a  warehouse  than  a  mission-house,  with 
boxes  and  trunks  and  even  furniture  stored  round 
the  walls,  leaving  me  a  small  space  in  the  centre. 

Foreigners,  both  French  and  English,  are 
flocking  in  from  the  country,  where  they  have 
been  residing,  in  order  that  they  may  place  them- 
selves under  the  protection  of  their  consuls  and 
the  men-of-war  which  are  riding  at  anchor  in  the 
harbor  here.  T.  C.  Pakenham,  Esq.,  H.  B.  M.'s 
consul,  called  a  meeting  this  afternoon  of  all  the 
British  subjects  at  the  consulate,  in  order  to  give 
advice  and  instruction.  But  in  the  present  posi- 
tion of  uncertainty  very  little  advice  could  be  ex- 
pected further  than  that  "all  the  British  subjects 
should,  in  the  prospect  of  war,  endeavor  to  keep 
themselves  calm  and  not  listen  to  every  report 
they  hear,  many  of  which  may  eventually  prove 
to  be  untrue,  and  all  of  them  exaggerated;  but 
that  care  should  be  taken  re$rardinof  all  contracts 
and  agreements  with  the  natives." 

There  is  little  doubt  that  this  meeting  was 
called,  and  such  instructions  given  by  H.  B.  M.'s 
consul,  as  the  result  of  a  circular  which  had  been 
addressed  to  French  citizens  on  the  east  coast  of 
Madagascar  by  the  acting  French  consul  and 
commissioner,  M.  Raffray,  in  which  he  stated 
that  the  difficulties  between  France  and  the  Ho- 
vas,  of  which  all  were  aware,  "were  about  to  be 


the;  beginning  of  hostilities.  181 

cut  short. ' '  He  further  goes  on  to  say,  u  I  do  not 
think  there  is  any  occasion  to  entertain  any  dis- 
quietude. But,  following  the  counsel  of  Admiral 
Pierre,  I  have  thought  that  there  is  occasion  to 
warn  you  and  to  recommend  you  to  be  pru- 
dent."* Notwithstanding  this  official  commu- 
nication from  the  French  consulate,  bearing  date 
May  2,  no  warning  whatever  of  impending  dan- 
ger had  been  given  to  the  British  consul,  in  order 
that  he  might  give  a  like  caution  to  the  subjects 
of  Her  Majesty  and  so  place  them  on  an  equally 
secure  footing  as  the  subjects  of  France.  But  it 
is  quite  possible  that  this  official  circular  is  only 
another  instance  of  the  petty  officialism  and  wan- 
ton interference  that  have  had  no  small  influence 
in  hurrying  on  the  present  complications  with 
France ;  for  the  substance  of  the  information 
given  in  the  acting-consul's  letter  is  denied  in  a 
letter  sent  from  M.  Baudais,  the  French  commis- 
sioner, soon  after  his  arrival  at  Tamatave,  to  Mr. 
Pakenham.  In  this  he  says,  "  Complications  be- 
tween the  Government  of  the  French  Republic 
and  that  of  Queen  Ranavalona  II.  are  possible, 
but  they  are  not  imminent,  as  you  appear  to  be- 
lieve. You  may  rest  assured,  M.  le  Consul,  that 
when  the  time  comes  I  shall  give  you  notice  of 

*  Despatch  of  C.  T.  Pakenham,  Esq.,  H.  B.  M.'s  consul,  dated 
May  17,  received  June  16, 18S3. 


1 82  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

the  situation  which  the  attitude  of  the  Hova 
Government  may  create  for  us.  For  the  time 
being  you  may,  while  counselling  prudence,  re- 
assure your  fellow-subjects  both  as  to  their  own 
safety  and  as  to  their  commercial  undertakings. 
As  regards  the  tranquillity  of  Tamatave,  I  have 
communicated  with  the  governor,  and  I  have  the 
assurance  that  it  will  not  be  disturbed."* 

Notwithstanding  this  letter  to  the  British  con- 
sul, the  circular  of  the  French  vice-consul  was 
not  recalled;  and  hence,  while  carefully  caution- 
ing and  preparing  the  French  residents,  an  en- 
deavor was  made  to  impress  upon  the  British 
community  the  uselessness  of  disturbing  the  ex- 
isting relations  with  the  people,  and  that  nothing 
was  necessary  for  perfect  safety  further  than  com- 
mon prudence. 

On  Sunday,  May  20,  there  were  scarcely  any 
people  in  the  churches;  in  fact,  as  compared  with 
the  usual  attendance,  the  buildings  looked  empty. 
Very  few  women  were  present,  their  husbands 
having  taken  the  precaution  of  sending  them  and 
their  children  into  the  interior.  Even  some  of 
the  soldiers  deserted  at  the  distant  prospect  of 
war,  and  at  least  one  man  of  honors  was  discov- 
ered trying  to  make  his  escape  across  the  river 
at  Ivondrona,  and  was  brought  back  in  disgrace. 

*  May  21,  1883. 


THE  BEGINNING  OE  HOSTILITIES.    .  183 

The  excitement,  although  not  apparent  on  the 
surface,  was,  nevertheless,  very  intense;  and  this 
remark  applies  equally  to  the  foreigners  as  to  the 
natives.  This  morning  a  savage,  perhaps  drunk- 
en (we  will  charitably  suppose  so)  attack  was 
made  upon  a  Mauritius  trader,  a  British  subject, 
by  an  officer  from  one  of  the  French  men-of-war. 
The  latter  demanded,  in  an  officious  tone,  to 
know  whether  the  former  was  a  British  or  a 
French  subject,  seeing  that  he  was  engaged  in 
supplying  provisions  to  the  1 '  Dryad. ' 1  The  Mau- 
ritian not  deigning  to  answer  such  a  question, 
tendered  in  so  offensive  a  tone,  turned  his  back 
upon  his  interlocutor,  for  which  the  Frenchman 
used  the  equally  polite  argument  of  the  fist  and 
knocked  the  other  down,  afterwards  adding  in- 
jury to  the  insult  by  throwing  the  stores  out  of 
the  boat  into  the  sea.  It  is  but  just  to  the  French 
authorities  to  say  that  this  act  of  outrage  was  vis- 
ited summarily  upon  the  head  of  the  offender, 
who  was  placed  in  irons  until  the  admiral's  ar- 
rival. 

During  the  ensuing  week  nothing  of  note  oc- 
curred. The  governor  and  officers  have  to  the 
best  of  their  ability  been  preparing  for  the  coming 
struggle  and  time  of  distress.  The  fort  has  been 
prepared  and  guns  placed  in  prominent  positions, 
rough  earthworks  have  been  thrown  up  and 


184  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

trenches  have  been  dug  around  the  main  fort,  and 
means  of  communication  between  these  and  the 
forts  along  the  coast  have  been  secured  by  cov- 
ered passages.  Seeing  that  there  was  a  probabil- 
ity of  war,  and  this  being  the  time  for  making 
provision,  I  set  about  arranging  for  an  ambulance 
and  a  hospital.  A  house  was  secured  for  this 
purpose,  flags  made,  and  badges  with  the  Geneva 
cross  upon  them  made  for  the  arms  of  those  to  be 
engaged  in  the  ambulance  service.  Upon  repre- 
sentations being  made  to  the  Governor  of  Tama- 
tave,  he  collected  his  soldiers  in  the  fort  and 
asked  me  to  bring  there  one  of  the  badges  as  well 
as  a  flag,  in  order  that  all  might  clearly  under- 
stand what  was  the  sign  by  which  they  would 
know  those  who  were  employed  in  the  beneficent 
occupation  of  attending  to  the  wounded.  Hear- 
ing that  in  civilized  warfare  no  one  wearing 
these  crosses  on  the  arm  or  moving  under  the 
shadow  of  that  flag  was  wilfully  injured,  they 
one  and  all  gladly  consented  to  folldw  this  hu- 
mane custom  and  abstain  from  any  attempt  to 
molest  or  impede  in  their  work  any  so  engaged, 
even  though  they  might  be  Frenchmen  carrying 
arms  against  them.  Having  obtained  so  satisfac- 
tory a  concession,  which  certainly  would  not  have 
been  given  twenty  or  five-and-twenty  years  ago, 
before  Christianity  and  civilization  had  so  altered 


THE  BEGINNING  OF  HOSTILITIES,  185 


the  national  character  by  their  softening  and  hu- 
manizing influences,  application  was  then  made 
to  the  French  Commissioner.  He  was  informed 
of  the  facts  stated  above,  but  his  reply  was  very 
far  from  what  was  expected.  He  said,  "If  you 
like  to  establish  a  hospital  and  hoist  the  hospital 
flag  over  it,  or  form  an  ambulance  corps,  why, 
I  suppose  you  are  at  liberty  so  to  do;  but  I  do  not 
at  all  think  that  the  admiral  will  respect  either 
the  hospital  flag  or  the  badge  on  the  arms  of  your 
men,  as  we  are  not  warring  against  a  civilized 
nation,  but  a  nation  altogether  barbarous."* 

Notwithstanding  this  unfavorable  reception  of 
a  scheme  which  we  supposed  would  be  probably 
as  useful  to  the  French  as  to  the  Malagasy,  I  con- 
sulted with  the  missionary  in  charge  of  the  Soci- 
ety for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel's  station  in 

*  No  opportunity  occurred  of  testing  the  policy  of  either  party, 
yet  it  certainly  reflects  great  credit  upon  the  "savage  "  nation  that 
they  were  quite  willing  to  respect  the  Geneva  cross,  even  though 
worn  by  their  enemies,  the  French,  while  the  sentiment  so  dis- 
creditable to  the  highly  civilized  nation  was  all  the  guarantee  that 
could  be  obtained  for  the  safety  of  myself  and  native  workers.  I 
ought  perhaps  to  say  that  beside  my  direct  mission  work  of  teach- 
ing and  preaching,  I  have  been  compelled,  from  the  nature  of  the 
climate  as  well  as  the  facility  thus  afforded  for  finding  one's  way 
to  the  people's  hearts,  to  give  considerable  attention  to  medical 
duties  and  the  dispensing  of  medicine.  Three  times  a  week  the 
sick  folk  to  the  number  of  twenty  or  thirty  came  to  the  consulting- 
room  in  the  bungalow  and  took  their  prescriptions  to  the  evangel- 
ist in  the  dispensary,  where  they  received  their  medicines.  It  was 
therefore  natural  that  the  people  should  request  that  some  provis- 
ion might  be  made  for  any  wounded  in  the  coming  struggle. 


l86  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

Tamatave,  and  together  we  made  arrangements  to 
meet  the  case  of  any  sick  or  wounded.  Bandages 
were  prepared,  splints  procured,  and  by  the  kind- 
ness of  Captain  Johnstone,  of  the  u  Dryad,"  who, 
in  his  justifiable  anxiety  to  give  no  cause  for 
offence  to  the  French  authorities,  could  promise 
us  no  help  from  his  surgeons,  we  were  yet  permit- 
ted to  borrow  a  couple  of  stretchers  for  convey- 
ance of  the  wounded  to  the  hospitals. 

On  Sunday,  the  27th,  it  was  found  that  after 
the  first  scare  a  great  many  of  the  people  had  re- 
turned to  their  homes  in  Tamatave,  and  we  had 
much  better  congregations,  with  a  large  propor- 
tion of  women.  They  had  but  taken  refuge  in 
the  villages  inland,  fearful  of  the  immediate  con- 
sequences of  the  presence  of  the  French.  But, 
although  back  in  Tamatave,  the  worshippers 
showed  no  more  confidence  in  the  pretence  of 
peacefulness  on  the  part  of  those  whom  they  have 
long  regarded  as  their  greatest  though  secret  en- 
emies. A  restless  anxiety  was  plainly  depicted 
on  each  countenance,  and  the  position  of  all  was 
one  of  the  most  painful  suspense. 


THE  FRENCH  ULTIMATUM. 


I87 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  FRENCH  ULTIMATUM. 

Arrival  of  the  "  Flore."  Ultimatum  Sent  to  the  Capital.  M.  Bau- 
dais'  Visit  to  the  Governor.  Difficulties  of  Communication 
with  the  Capital.  Roads.  Fever.  Rivers.  Crocodiles. 
Ultimatum  Arrives  in  Capital.    Its  Terms. 

On  Thursday,  May  31,  the  "Flore,"  the  flag- 
ship of  Admiral  Pierre,  came  in  sight  and  an- 
chored in  the  harbor  near  Point  Tanio  at  about 
4:30  a.  m.  She  brought  news  of  the  capture  of 
Mojanga,  which  is  now  in  ruins.  The  accounts 
describing  the  bombardment  and  capture  of  that 
town,  which  is  by  far  the  largest  port  on  the 
northwest  coast,  are  very  conflicting.  All,  how- 
ever, concur  in  stating  that  the  natives  made  a 
stout  resistance;  but  bravery  and  pledged  loyalty 
were  no  match  for  the  shells  fired  from  the  long- 
range  guns  of  the  French  men-of-war,  and  the 
simple  defenders  of  their  country  were  compelled 
to  take  to  flight. 

On  Friday,  June  1,  we  heard  that  M.  Baudais, 
the  French  Commissioner,  and  Admiral  Pierre 
had  sent  an  ultimatum  to  the  Hova  Government 
in  the  capital.  This  had  been  anticipated,  be- 
cause it  was  known  that  M.  Baudais  had  been  to 


l88  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

the  native  governor  in  the  fort  to  demand,  atnono- 
other  things,  that  relays  of  couriers  should  be 
placed  on  the  road  to  Antananarivo  to  facilitate 
the  despatch  of  communications  to  and  from  the 
Government. 

The  journey  from  Tamatave  to  the  capital  is 
usually  accomplished  by  foreigners  with  light 
baggage  and  in  a  palanquin  in  eight  to  twelve 
days.  But  Government  letter-carriers  cover  the 
ground  in  about  four  days;  while,  with  relays  wait- 
ing at  each  large  village,  avoiding  any  delays  ei- 
ther by  night  or  day,  messages  can  be  sent  in  two 
and  a  half  or  three  days.  The  actual  distance 
is  about  200  or  220  miles.  I  have  known  one 
Government  carrier  to  complete  this  distance,  un- 
der promise  of  reward  in  a  matter  of  urgency,  in 
two  days  and  a  half.  This  is  not  only  remarka- 
ble as  an  instance  of  endurance,  but  also  of  hard- 
ihood in  overcoming  the  difficulties  of  the  way. 

There  is  no  road  other  than  a  beaten  track, 
which  in  some  places  is  impracticable  to  feet 
shod  with  European  boots,  both  from  the  clayey 
nature  of  the  ground  and  the  steepness  of  the 
mountains  over  which  the  path  leads.  There  are 
no  bridges;  the  rivers  and  almost  innumerable 
streams  are  crossed  either  by  fording  or  in  canoes. 
There  are  no  inns  or  places  of  entertainment  on 
the  way,  and  the  villages  are  few  and  far  between. 


RAIXANDRIAMAMPANDRY, 

GOVERNOR  OF  TAMATAVE. 


THE  FRENCH  ULTIMATUM. 


IQI 


Hence  the  certainty  of  a  supply  of  food  when 
needed  for  the  hurried  messenger  is  often  very 
remote.  There  are  also  certain  positive  perils  to 
which  he  is  exposed,  that  must  be  looked  upon 
as  the  causes  of  the  total  disappearance  of  some 
messengers.  There  is  the  fever  that  Radama  L 
looked  upon  as  one  of  the  defences  of  his  coun- 
try, to  which  all  are  exposed,  and  which  to  trav- 
ellers in  the  forest  regions  often  proves  fatal. 

The  Malagasy  fever,  resembling  somewhat  the 
jungle  fever  of  India  and  that  of  Zanzibar,  is  of 
the  intermittent  type,  usually  tertian.  It  is  caused 
by  the  system  imbibing  malarial  poison  from  the 
numerous  swamps  and  lakes  surrounded  by  luxu- 
riant tropical  vegetation,  the  leaves  from  which, 
falling  into  the  water  and  decaying,  generate 
under  the  fervent  heat  of  the  sun  the  noxious 
gases  and  fever  germs  that  some  suppose  to  be 
the  cause  of  malaria.  According  to  one  medical 
authority,  for  many  years  resident  in  Madagascar, 
these  fever  germs  can  be  discovered  any  night 
by  taking  a  portion  of  water  from  the  surface  of 
a  swamp  and  examining  it  under  a  microscope, 
when  there  will  be  found  to  be  present  minute 
vegetable  organisms  that  are  never  present  during 
the  daytime.  If  it  be  correct  that  these  micro- 
scopic plants  are  the  germs  of  the  fever,  it  will 
help  to  account  for  the  well-known  fact  that  it  is 


192  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

positively  dangerous  to  remain  in  some  places  at 
night  that  are  perfectly  harmless  during  the  sun- 
light. 

When  first  attacked  the  victim  usually  suffers 
considerably,  passing  through  successive  stages 
of  cold,  heat,  and  subsequent  perspiration,  with 
diminution  or  cessation  of  fever.  The  first  illness 
may  last  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks,  and  leaves 
behind  it  a  prostration  and  depression  extremely 
difficult  to  bear  patiently,  with  occasionally  more 
disastrous  legacies,  such  as  enlarged  spleen  or 
congested  liver.  All  subsequent  attacks  are  very 
much  less  violent  in  form,  though  very  wearing 
to  the  system;  but  having  once  contracted  the 
disease,  the  patient  is  always  liable  to  return  of 
the  attack;  and  although  quinine — almost  the 
only  known  remedy — acts  in  a  remarkably  bene- 
ficial way  in  the  majority  of  cases,  yet,  it  does  not 
prevent  a  recurrence  of  the  fever,  even  after  the 
patient  has  left  the  neighborhood  of  the  malaria 
and  has  taken  up  his  residence  in  Europe.  "  Kill- 
ing the  fever  "  has  been  heard  of  in  some  parts  of 
the  world  by  the  administration  of  excessive  doses 
of  quinine;  but  the  experiment  has  not,  I  believe, 
been  tried  in  Madagascar. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that,  although  those  born 
in  a  particular  tract  of  malarious  country  are 
fairly  exempt  from  its  noxious  influences,  yet  not 


THE  FRENCH  ULTIMATUM.  193 

only  are  foreigners  to  the  country  attacked  by  the 
fever,  but  natives  from  other  parts  of  the  island 
are  alike  subject  to  it,  notwithstanding  that  they 
may  have  lived  in  another  unhealthy  tract,  and 
been  there  free,  or  1  ( fever-proof, ' '  as  the  Malagasy 
have  it.  So  in  Tamatave:  of  the  600  soldiers 
who  arrived  in  company  with  the  native  gov- 
ernor in  1882  to  form  the  garrison,  quite  three- 
fourths  were  attacked  by  the  fever  and  suffered 
severely,  although  very  many  of  them  had  come 
from  a  swampy  part  of  the  central  table-land,  and 
had  either  had  the  fever  or,  being  born  there,  had 
not  been  subject  to  it,  and  were  considered  fever- 
proof.  On  the  coast  too  the  disorder  sometimes 
assumes  the  malignant  or  typhoid  form,  and  is 
usually  fatal.  However,  after  the  first  attack,  it 
is  considered  by  medical  authorities  to  be  very 
rarely  dangerous,  with  proper  care  and  treatment, 
if  there  are  no  other  coexisting  complications, 
and  it  is  neither  contagious  nor  infectious. 

Another  cause  of  the  difficulty  of  communica- 
ting with  the  seat  of  government  is  the  state  of 
the  rivers,  especially  at  certain  seasons,  when 
they  are  swollen  into  roaring  torrents  by  the 
drainage  of  the  plateau  during  the  months  of 
rain  in  the  interior.  Canoes  are  frequently  up- 
set, and  the  urgent  traveller  is  swept  away  in  the 
impetuous  stream;  and  even  in  the  shallower  wa- 


194  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

ters,  where  it  is  customary  to  ford,  many  a  weak 
or  over-fatigued  messenger  is  lost,  never  to  be 
heard  of  again,  among  the  white  foaming  water 
dashing  among  the  rocks  in  the  rough  bed  of  the 
rapids,  or  devoured  by  the  crocodiles  lying  at  the 
bottom  of  the  quieter  but  still  more  treacherous 
pools. 

Crocodiles  (Crocodilus  Madagascariensis)  abound 
in  most  of  the  rivers,  and  especially  near  the  coast 
are  a  real  terror  to  native  travellers.  They  attain 
a  great  size,  and  are  by  no  means  the  timid  crea- 
tures which  some  writers  have  represented  them 
to  be.  They  belong  to  a  distinct  species  from 
those  in  Africa,  and  they  are  not,  as  some  have 
supposed,  identical  with  the  caiman  or  alligator 
of  South  America,  which  has  a  much  larger 
snout,  irregularly-sized  teeth,  and  partly  webbed 
feet.  They  are  so  voracious  as  to  well  deserve  the 
name  which  has  been  applied  to  them — "sharks 
of  the  rivers;"  and  although  they  usually  attack 
their  prey  in  the  water,  where  they  are  quite  at 
home,  yet  cases  have  been  known  of  their  follow- 
ing children  on  shore.  Every  year  many  cases 
occur  near  Tamatave  of  mutilation  or  death  from 
these  terrors  of  the  rivers. 

Between  the  time  of  the  commencement  of 
hostilities  on  the  northwest  and  the  bombardment 
of  Tamatave  two  cases  were  brought  in  fearfully 


THE  FRENCH  ULTIMATUM.  1 95 

mutilated  by  these  reptiles.  One  of  these,  a  boy, 
had  merely  put  one  leg  into  the  centre  of  a  ditch 
over  which  he  could  easily  have  leaped  in  the 
daytime.  A  crocodile  must  have  been  lying 
very  near  the  spot.  It  took  the  boy's  leg  in  its 
mouth,  severely  wounding  him  above  the  knee, 
the  flesh  of  the  thigh  being  terribly  torn  in  the 
efforts  of  the  boy  to  extricate  it;  when  the  animal 
made  its  next  snap  it  took  him  in  the  shin,  and 
afterwards  in  the  ankle.  Fortunately  the  poor 
fellow  did  not  faint  till  he  had  extricated  his  leg 
and  had  crawled  or  hopped  away  to  a  safe  dis- 
tance. Only  a  month  or  two  before  a  crocodile 
seized  one  of  our  school-children  who,  in  company 
with  a  number  of  his  playmates,  was  bathing  near 
the  bank  of  the  river.  His  companions  for  some 
time  thought  he  had  but  dived  in  his  play,  and  it 
was  not  till  they  saw  a  splashing  some  distance 
down  the  river  that  they  guessed  what  had  hap- 
pened and  raised  the  cry  for  assistance.  Canoes 
were  soon  manned  and  chase  was  given;  but  all 
too  late;  for  not  until  the  following  morning  was 
the  body  discovered,  a  couple  of  miles  down  the 
river  and  partly  devoured. 

It  is  no  wonder  that  such  creatures  should 
have  struck  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, and  that  in  their  heathen  state  they  should 
have  regarded  them  with  a  certain  amount  of  awe 
12 


196  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

and  even  reverence,  and  that  a  great  deal  of  su- 
perstition should  have  surrounded  these  monarchs 
of  the  rivers  and  streams.  No  native  would,  a 
few  years  ago,  have  dared  to  kill  a  crocodile,  fear- 
ing disaster  to  himself  or  family  from  the  survi- 
vors of  his  reptile  enemy.  At  a  certain  village  I 
heard  that  a  crocodile  in  the  neighboring  river 
had  committed  many  depredations  upon  sheep, 
dogs,  and  pigs  belonging  to  the  villagers,  and  I 
offered  to  go  and  try  to  shoot  it  if  one  of  them 
would  come  and  show  me  its  haunt.  But  not 
only  was  a  guide  refused,  but  my  informant  com- 
menced to  speak  in  whispers,  saying  that  other- 
wise the  crocodile  would  hear,  and  would  in  ven- 
geance take  one  of  his  children  for  speaking  dis- 
respectfully of  him. 

11  But,"  I  argued,  "if  I  kill  him  it  will  be  all 
right." 

"  No,"  said  he;  "  for  then  his  relations  would 
come  and  execute  their  will  upon  me  or  my  fam- 
ily." 

As  civilization  and  enlightenment  have  been 
making  themselves  felt,  so  the  superstitious  dread 
of  destroying  these  scourges  of  the  water  has  been 
losing  its  hold  on  the  people,  who  do  not  now 
scruple  to  kill  all  they  are  able  to  master.  The 
crocodile  has  other  enemies,  in  the  shape  of 
rats,  hedgehogs,  serpents,  and  birds,  the  first 


THE  FRENCH  ULTIMATUM.  197 

two  of  which  devour  its  eggs,  and  the  others  its 
young. 

Such  are  some  of  the  difficulties  to  be  met 
with  by  the  Government  letter-carriers,  whose 
duty  frequently  compels  them  to  travel  by  night 
as  well  as  by  day,  through  river  and  marsh,  forest 
and  jungle,  over  soft,  burning  sand  and  sharp- 
cutting,  rocky  mountain-paths,  scarcely  stopping 
either  for  rest  or  food  until  the  end  of  the  journey 
is  gained.  The  greatest  respect  is  paid  to  these 
men,  both  on  the  road  by  the  villagers,  who  are 
bound  to  supply  them  with  food,  and  also  by 
those  to  w7hom  they  are  sent.  They  are  admitted 
at  once  on  their  arrival,  whether  that  be  during 
the  day  or  in  the  night,  to  the  palace  if  sent  to 
the  capital,  or  into  the  fort  if  bearing  a  message 
to  Tamatave,  and  their  credentials  and  despatches 
examined. 

The  ultimatum  from  the  commissioner  and 
admiral  arrived  three  days  after  its  departure 
from  Tamatave,  and  was  delivered  into  the  hands 
of  the  Prime  Minister  on  June  4.    Its  terms  were: 

"The  French  Government,  animated  by  a 
sincere  desire  to  reestablish  as  quickly  as  possible 
those  relations  of  peace  and  friendship  with  the 
Government  of  Her  Majesty  Queen  Ranavalona 
II.  which  have  united  them  for  so  long  a  time, 
have  resolved  on  employing  all  means  for  pro- 


198  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

tecting  the  position  they  have  obtained  in  Mada- 
gascar, and  have  given  orders  to  the  undersigned 
to  make  known  to  the  Government  of  Queen 
Ranavalona  the  conditions  upon  which  hence- 
forth the  good  relations  which  France  desires  to 
preserve  with  this  Government  can  be  kept  up : 

"1.  The  Government  of  the  queen  must  pos- 
itively recognize  the  rights  of  sovereignty  or  pro- 
tectorate over  certain  territories  which  treaties 
concluded  with  Sakalava  chiefs  confer  upon  us. 
These  territories  extend  from  Baly  Bay  on  the 
west  to  Antongil  Bay  on  the  east,  rounding  Cape 
Amber. 

u2.  The  85th  law,  in  complete  contradiction 
to  Art.  4  in  the.  treaty  of  1868,  shall  be  repealed, 
and  the  queen  shall  engage  herself  to  give  formal 
and  immediate  guarantees,  which  the  Commis- 
sioner of  the  French  Republic,  who  is  furnished 
with  full  powers  by  his  Government  for  settling 
this  question,  shall  make  known  to  her  at  the 
proper  time  and  place,  in  order  that  in  future 
the  right  of  ownership  of  or  of  leasing  land  for  a 
very  long  period  can  be  exercised  with  all  liberty 
by  French  citizens. 

"  These  conditions  shall  be  the  object  of  a 
special  treaty,  for  the  signature  of  which  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Her  Majesty  Queen  Ranavalona  II. 
shall  engage  to  send  within  fifteen  days  a  plenipo- 


THE  FRENCH  ULTIMATUM.  1 99 

tentiary  to  the  place  which  the  Commissioner  of 
the  French  Republic  shall  appoint.  This  pleni- 
potentiary shall  also  have  the  powers  necessary 
for  accepting  such  changes  in  the  treaty  of  1868, 
or  any  part  of  it,  if  there  be  cause  for  such,  as  the 
Commissioner  of  the  French  Republic  shall  pro- 
pose to  him. 

"3.  The  queen's  Government  must  engage  to 
pay,  within  thirty  days  of  the  receipt  of  the  pres- 
ent ultimatum  in  Tamatave,  into  the  hands  of 
the  Commissioner  of  the  Republic,  the  sum  of  a 
million  francs,  being  two  hundred  thousand  dol- 
lars, for  indemnity  due  to  the  French  citizens. 

4 'The  undersigned,  immediately  the  present 
ultimatum  is  accepted,  will  make  known  to  the 
Government  of  Queen  Ranavalona  II.  the  con- 
ditions which  they  demand  as  guarantee  for  the 
execution  of  the  clauses  enumerated  above.  These 
conditions  are  not  presented  to  the  Government 
of  Ranavalona  II.  as  matter  for  discussion,  but  for 
reply  by  a  1  Yes '  or  a  1  Xo '  within  eight  days. 
This  time  has  been  thus  calculated:  Three  days 
for  the  journey  from  Tamatave  to  Antananarivo 
(200  miles),  as  many  for  the  return  journey,  and 
two  days  for  reflection. 

"The  undersigned  have  received  from  their 
Government  the  formal  order  not  to  give  the  least 
margin  in  the  time  fixed.    If,  then,  the  answer 


200  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

be  ambiguous  or  incomplete,  or  if  it  should  not 
be  received  before  midnight  of  the  ninth  to  the 
tenth  of  June  by  the  Commissioner  of  the  Repub- 
lic, who  will  transmit  it  to  the  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  Naval  Division  of  the  Indian  Ocean, 
then  Rear-Admiral  Pierre  will  be  obliged  with 
regret  to  open  fire  on  the  defences  of  the  town  of 
Tamatave,  to  take  possession  of  it,  and  also  to 
destroy  all  Government  establishments  of  Her 
Majesty  Queen  Ranavalona  on  the  east  coast  of 
Madagascar.  The  custom-house  at  Tamatave 
will  be  occupied,  and  the  custom  dues  will  be 
collected  by  the  French  authorities  to  the  amount 
of  the  sum  claimed,  and  as  long  as  the  above- 
mentioned  complete  satisfaction  is  not  obtained. 

"Ulterior  measures  will  be  resorted  to  for  the 
future  guarantee  of  the  right  of  ownership  of  land 
to  our  citizens.  The  results  on  the  northwest 
coast  of  the  operations  of  the  Rear- Admiral,  Com- 
mander-in-Chief in  the  Indian  Ocean,  are  of  a 
nature  to  show  the  Government  of  Queen  Rana- 
valona II.  the  power  he  possesses  to  carry  out  his 
designs. 

1 '  In  the  name  of  the  Government  of  the  French 
Republic  the  undersigned  openly  declare  that  the 
Government  of  Queen  Ranavalona  II.  and  the 
Prime  Minister  will,  be  held  responsible  for  all 
that  may  happen  throughout  the  extent  of  Mad- 


THE)  FRENCH  ULTIMATUM.  201 


agascar,  both  to  French  citizens  and  others,  of 
whatsoever  nationality.  Whatever  may  befall 
them,  directly  or  indirectly,  as  to  their  lives,  lib- 
erty, possessions,  families,  or  family  possessions, 
would  occasion  the  demand  of  indemnities  the 
amount  of  which  will  be  fixed  by  the  undersigned, 
and  of  which  the  payment  will  be  at  once  de- 
manded. 

1 '  If  the  Government  of  the  queen,  after  having 
accepted  the  conditions  of  the  present  ultimatum, 
should  cause  intentional  delay  in  the  accomplish- 
ment of  one  or  several  of  their  promises,  or  if  the 
plenipotentiary  should  at  any  time  withdraw,  on 
account  of  the  insufficiency  of  his  powers,  hostili- 
ties will  commence  without  further  summons  be- 
ing given. 

( '  The  undersigned  have  the  strong  hope  that 
the  Government  of  Queen  Ranavalona,  in  accept- 
ing conditions  the  moderation  of  which  it  would 
be  difficult  to  deny,  will  free  them  from  having 
recourse  to  the  employment  of  stronger  measures, 
and  nothing  will  cause  them  greater  satisfaction 
than  to  be  spared  the  necessity  of  useless  blood- 
shed. 

'  '(Signed) 

"M.  BAUDAIS,  French  Consul. 
"  M.  PIERRE,  Rear-Admiral." 


MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

EFFECT  OF  THE  ULTIMATUM  IN  ANTANANARIVO. 

Effect  in  the  Capital  of  French  Action  on  the  Northwest  Coast. 
Notice  to  British  Subjects.  To  the  French.  Seventy  French 
Subjects  Taken  Safely  to  Tamatave.  The  People  not  such 
Barbarians  as  Admiral  Pierre  Thought  Them.  Kabary.  Proc- 
lamation of  the  Queen.  Speech  of  the  Prime  Minister.  The 
Answer  to  the  Ultimatum. 

When  the  news  first  arrived  in  the  capital 
that  the  northwest  coast  had  been  bombarded,  it 
was  scarcely  believed.  In  fact,  it  was  not  until 
it  was  known  that  official  notice  to  that  effect 
had  been  received  by  the  Government  that  any- 
thing like  conviction  took  the  place  of  incredulity 
in  the  minds  of  the  common  people.  French 
consuls  had  so  often  threatened  the  Government, 
and  had  held  before  them  a  picture  of  the  horrors 
of  bombardment  on  their  coast,  in  order  to  en- 
force some  French  demands,  that,  now  the  threat 
had  been  carried  into  execution,  it  seemed  im- 
possible of  belief. 

Soon  a  scare  evinced  itself  among  the  foreign 
residents.  What  was  to  be  the  effect  of  this  hostile 
action  of  the  French  admiral  upon  the  natives  in 
the  capital,  and  how  would  it  affect  them  in  their 


THE  ULTIMATUM  IN  ANTANANARIVO.  205 

relations  towards  the  Europeans?  Some  of  the 
latter  had  been  long  enough  in  the  country  to 
have  witnessed  the  savage  nature  of  the  people 
stirred  to  its  depths  in  the  revolution  at  Radama's 
death,  and  they  knew  there  was  cause  for  fear. 
Others  had  heard  of  the  extent  of  cruelty  to  which 
the  Hovas  had  been  addicted  in  their  wars  with 
the  other  tribes,  and  they  dreaded  lest  this  spirit 
might  break  through  their  profession  of  Christi- 
anity, and  kindle  the  mad  passions  of  those  who 
knew  that  foreigners  were  engaged  in  burning 
their  villages  and  killing  their  defenceless  fellow 
countrymen.  But  the  religion  of  the  Hovas  was 
not  a  mere  form,  put  on  for  the  occasion  or  for 
pleasing  the  queen,  and  their  conduct  at  this  try- 
ing time  most  conclusively  proved  that  the  mis- 
sionaries' work  had  affected  their  hearts  and  lives. 

The  Prime  Minister  called  the  foreign  resi- 
dents  together,  telling  the  English,  Norwegians, 
and  Americans,  of  whom  there  were  185  in  all, 
that  the  queen  had  bid  him  say  to  them  that  as 
they  had  always  been  the  friends  of  Madagascar, 
they  need  have  no  fear;  she  would  protect  them 
from  molestation  and  their  property  from  destruc- 
tion. She,  however,  asked  them  to  live  as  near 
each  other  as  possible  in  one  quarter  of  the  town, 
that  they  could  be  the  more  easily  guarded.  This 
was  done  most  effectually  by  the  Prime  Minister 


206 


MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


sending  a  guard  of  soldiers  into  each  compound, 
as  a  watch  for  the  night.  No  subject  of  the  above 
nations  has  had  any  cause  of  complaint;  all  has 
been  perfectly  quiet  and  orderly  in  the  capital, 
notwithstanding  the  stirring  and  exciting  events 
that  have  been  transpiring  on  the  coast. 

The  French  subjects  were  informed  that,  as 
an  admiral  of  their  fleet  had  destroyed  Malagasy 
villages  after  having  insulted  the  Hova  flag,  it 
was  unwise  and  even  unsafe  for  them  to  remain 
in  the  country.  The  Government  had  no  quarrel 
wTith  them  personally,  but  as  they  belonged  to 
that  nation  which  had  acted  thus,  it  would  be 
impossible  for  the  queen  and  Prime  Minister  to 
guarantee  their  safety  in  the  capital  indefinitely. 
But,  in  order  that  it  might  not  be  said  they  were 
driven  out  of  Antananarivo,  five  days  were  al- 
lowed them  to  make  the  necessary  arrangements 
for  departure,  during  which  time  the  Prime  Min- 
ister undertook  to  protect  them.  The  five  days 
having  expired,  they  were  told  to  leave;  and,  evi- 
dently with  the  idea  of  representing  themselves 
as  expelled  and  badly  treated,  they  left  without 
any  bearers.  All  were  walking,  and  the  priests 
and  lay  brothers  were  carrying  bedding  and  other 
necessaries. 

The  queen,  hearing  of  this,  sent  for  them, 
after  they  had  proceeded  some  distance  on  the 


THE  ULTIMATUM  IN  ANTANANARIVO.  20J 

road,  and  told  them  that  they  were  to  have  bear- 
ers; and,  as  they  could  not  induce  any  men  to  go 
with  them  for  wages,  she  would  supply  them  with 
a  sufficient  number  to  carry  their  women  and 
children,  with  their  baggage.    Nor  was  this  all, 
for  had  the  Prime  Minister  and  queen  abstained 
from  doing  more,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  any 
of  those  seventy  French  subjects  would  have 
reached  the  coast  alive.    But  more  was  done;  a 
guard  of  soldiers  with  officers  went  with  the  party. 
They  supplied  the  travellers  with  houses  and 
food,  and  defended  them  on  the  journey  for  about 
three  weeks.    Doubtless  they  had  many  annoy- 
ances and  inconveniences  to  suffer,  arising  from 
travelling  with  such  a  large  company;  but  all 
travellers  in  Madagascar  have  to  put  up  with 
troubles  and  privations  incident  to  the  route. 
But  the  native  officers  behaved  nobly:  for  al- 
though while  still  on  the  way  they  heard  of  the 
bombardment  of  Tamatave  and  the  destruction 
of  the  native  town,  yet  no  harm  befell  them. 
Although  their  French  compatriots  in  Tamatave, 
who  despised  the  Malagasy  as  a  "nation  of  bar- 
barians," had  given  up  all  hope  of  seeing  them 
again,  and  though  they  had  to  be  passed  through 
the  lines  of  the  Hova  soldiers,  west  of  Tamatave, 
which  they  were  besieging,  yet  they  were  deliv- 
ered up  safe  and  sound  to  the  French  officers. 


208  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

No  one  could  have  blamed  the  Malagasy,  had 
they  kept  the  French  as  prisoners  and  prevented 
their  entering  the  town,  where  to  a  certain  extent 
they  would  be  able  to  give  information  respecting 
the  Hova  forces  and  their  position.  But  the 
queen  had  said  that  though  they  were  fighting 
the  French,  these  priests  and  sisters  of  mercy 
must  reach  the  coast  in  safety;  and,  to  use  the 
Rev.  G.  Cousins'  words,  u  Christianity  triumphed, 
the  influences  of  civilization  triumphed;  all  got 
safely  down,  and  we  thank  God  for  it;  but  we  rec- 
ognize in  that  the  forbearance  of  the  Malagasy." 

Another  instance  of  the  forbearance  of  the  na- 
tives is  given  by  Mr.  Cousins.  He  says  that, 
"  After  the  French  began  to  knock  down  those 
little  places  on  the  coast,  a  vessel  went  into  one 
of  the  ports  in  the  south,  intending  to  get  prod- 
uce. The  native  officials,  according  to  custom, 
sent  off  one  or  two  of  the  officers  to  make  inqui- 
ries as  to  the  name,  owner,  object,  and  destination 
of  the  ship,  and  to  give  them  pratique.  Those 
officers  were  not  allowed  to  go  on  board;  they 
were  told  to  go  about  their  business;  not  a  single 
one  of  their  questions  was  answered.  They  were 
told  that  for  them  to  go  on  board  a  French  ship 
asking  such  questions  was  an  insult  to  the  French 
flag.  They  were  told  to  be  off,  and  they  went. 
That  night  it  began  to  blow,  and  the  ship  drifted 


THE  ULTIMATUM  IN  ANTANANARIVO.  209 

towards  the  coast,  which  is  a  very  dangerous  one. 
The  commander  of  the  garrison — for  there  was  a 
garrison  there — all  his  officers,  all  the  people,  at 
once  went  to  the  rescue;  they  did  their  utmost  to 
save  the  French  captain  and  crew  from  destruc- 
tion, and  they  succeeded.  They  had  been  told  to 
go  about  their  business  a  few  hours  before;  now 
they  were  politely  thanked  for  their  good  offices. 
That  was  forbearance,  and  that  is  a  fact  which 
means  a  good  deal.  It  really  indicates  the  spirit 
in  which  these  people  have  acted.  They  have 
been  anxious  to  avoid  war,  and  they  want  to  be  at 
peace;  but  they  are  determined  they  wont  give 
up  their  country. n 

A  proclamation  was  issued  calling  the  people 
together  into  the  capital  to  hear  from  the  queen 
how  matters  stood  between  her  and  the  French. 
She  was  also  anxious  to  consult  them  on  the  fu- 
ture course  to  be  pursued.  This  is  the  first  time, 
probably,  that  the  people  have  been  called  upon 
to  give  their  voice  in  the  management  of  the 
State.  It  is  the  first  shadow  of  a  popular  voice 
in  the  Government;  but  we  may  fondly  hope 
that,  having  been  once  admitted  thus,  the  prin- 
ciple will  always  be  recognized,  and  the  regular 
practice  of  some  form  of  representation  of  the 
people  in  the  Government  will  surely  erelong 
develop  itself.    Under  the  late  queen  harsh  des- 


2IO  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

potism  lost  its  rigor,  justice  and  moderation  as- 
sumed the  sway,  and  the  sovereign  was  revered 
and  even  loved  by  a  contented  and  happy  people, 
progressing  rapidly  in  freedom  and  civilization. 

On  June  7  the  people  assembled  at  the  usual 
meeting-place,  and  the  Prime  Minister  delivered 
the  queen's  message: 

' '  You  are  assembled  here,  O  ye  people,  at  the 
time  appointed  for  your  coming  together.  Well, 
we  have  been  sent  as  messengers  from  our  sover- 
eign, Ranavalomanjaka;  and  this  is  what  she  has 
commanded  us  to  tell  you.  In  accordance  with 
the  proclamation  I  issued  to  you  on  Wednesday 
(the  day  before),  she  says:  'I  commanded  you  to 
come  together,  and  you  have  come,  O  my  people, 
at  the  appointed  time,  for  you  did  not  disappoint 
me,  Ranavalomanjaka.  You  are  told  to  come  by 
day,  and  you  come  by  day;  you  are  told  to  come 
by  night,  and  you  come  by  night;  you  are  easily 
guided,  for,  though  many,  you  do  not  overtax 
one's  powers;  though  a  multitude,  one's  voice 
grows  not  hoarse  in  addressing  you.  Therefore  I 
thank  you,  O  my  people,  for  I  have  fathers,  I  have 
mothers,  having  you.  May  you  live  long,  enjoy- 
ing all  prosperity,  blessed  by  God  ! 

"  'Now  this  is  what  I  have  to  tell  you:  We 
made  a  treaty  with  the  French,  and  agreed  to  be 
friends  and  not  foes.     Moreover,  the  treatment 


THE  ULTIMATUM  IN  ANTANANARIVO.  211 

they  have  received,  the  respect  and  deference 
shown  to  them,  you  have  both  seen  and  heard; 
for  even  in  matters  where  forbearance  was  not 
due  forbearance  was  shown,  in  the  hope  of 
strengthening  friendly  relations.  When  a  dis- 
pute arose  here  in  reference  to  certain  claims 
they  advanced,  and  a  settlement  of  these  became 
impossible,  we  sent  Ravoninahitriniarivo  and  his 
companions  as  an  embassy.  And  although  this 
involved  a  heavy  expenditure  of  money,  I  did  not 
lay  the  burden  upon  you,  O  my  people,  lest  any 
of  you  should  be  lukewarm  in  the  matter;  and  I 
acted  thus  from  my  unwillingness  to  have  any  of 
the  blood  of  the  children  of  my  people  uselessly 
shed  in  the  land.  The  greatest  forbearance  was 
exercised,  that  justice  might  be  secured  and  from 
an  unwillingness  to  fight  with  foreigners.  How- 
ever, although  we  exercised  this  forbearance  and 
used  all  suitable  means  to  prevent  war,  they  have 
now  attacked  Anorontsanga  and  Mojanga. 

"'Now,  upon  attacking  Anorontsanga,  they 
informed  Rainimiraony,  the  governor,  that  if  he 
did  not  evacuate  the  place  within  four  hours  they 
wrould  bombard  him.  But  Rainimiraony  replied 
that  the  country  belonged  to  Ranavalomanjaka, 
and  that  he  should  not  leave,  and  that  if  they 
bombarded  him  that  must  be  their  affair,  for  he 
had  not  yet  received  any  instructions  from  the 


212  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

Government  here  at  Antananarivo  telling  him  of 
a  rupture  of  friendly  relations  between  the  two 
Governments,  and  that  he  was  to  engage  in  war 
with  the  French.  He  added  that  it  was  not  be- 
cause he  was  not  in  a  position  to  retaliate  that  he 
refused  to  do  so,  but  simply  because  he  had  no  in- 
structions to  that  effect;  and  he  asked  Admiral 
Pierre  to  produce  the  Sakalava  who  claimed  the 
country  as  theirs,  as  that  was  not  a  matter  in 
which  the  French  had  any  right  to  interfere. 

11  '  At  Mojanga,  again,  they  told  Ramanbazafy 
to  clear  out  within  an  hour,  leaving  all  arms  be- 
hind him.  Ramanbazafy  replied  that  he  should 
not  go,  and  thereupon  was  attacked.  Women 
and  children,  besides  invalids,  were  still  in  the 
place,  and  the  destruction  of  private  property  was 
great. 

U<A  little  later  on  came  a  despatch  from 
Rainandriamampandry,  Governor  of  Tamatave, 
stating  that  M.  Baudais  and  Campan  had  been  to 
the  fort  to  make  inquiries,  and  to  inform  him 
that,  according  to  rumors,  the  Malagasy  intended 
to  set  fire  to  the  houses  of  the  foreigners  in  Tam- 
atave. Rainandriamampandry  told  them  in  re- 
ply that  the  laws  of  the  sovereign  of  Madagascar 
condemned  evil-doers,  and  that  if  any  one  did  as 
they  said,  he  would  be  guilty  in  the  eyes  of  the 
law ;  and  on  his  part,  Rainandriamampandry 


THE  ULTIMATUM  IN  ANTANANARIVO.    21 3 

asked  them  about  the  bombardment  of  the  north- 
ern ports  by  the  French  men-of-war,  without  pre- 
vious negotiations  and  while  friendly  relations 
still  existed.  To  this  Baudais  answered  that  he 
too  had  heard  of  this;  but  that  was  no  concern  of 
his,  but  Admiral  Pierre's.  "Moreover,  there 
would  soon  be  important  business  in  hand,"  he 
said;  and  he  told  Rainandriamampandry  to  see 
that  relays  of  couriers  were  properly  stationed 
for  conveying  despatches  up  and  down  the  coun- 
try. 

"'Well,  on  Tuesday  the  "ultimatum"  ar- 
rived from  Admiral  Pierre  and  M.  Baudais.  It 
is  a  lengthy  document,  but  these  are  the  points 
to  be  submitted  to  you:  They  claim  a  third  of 
Madagascar  and  demand  two  hundred  thousand 
dollars;  moreover,  the  time  allowed  for  answer- 
ing their  despatch  is  eight  days;  that  is,  three 
days  for  conveying  it  to  the  capital,  two  for  con- 
sidering its  contents,  and  three  for  conveying  the 
answer  to  the  coast;  and  in  the  event  of  our  not 
acceding  to  their  demands,  or  of  the  answer  not 
arriving  in  time,  or  should  Rainandriamampan- 
dry make  any  military  preparations  or  move  any 
troops,  then  they  would  bombard  and  destroy  all 
the  ports  on  the  east  coast.  Now,  shall  we  yield 
to  their  demands,  or  what  do  you  think  we  should 
do?'  " 

Madagascar  aud  France.  T  - 


214  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

Then  the  people  refused  with  a  loud  shout, 
saying,  u  God  forbid  that  we  should  do  that!" 
They  stood  up,  one  after  another,  and  made 
speeches,  tribe  by  tribe,  protesting  against  any 
cession  of  territory  to  the  French,  though  but  of 
the  size  of  a  grain  of  rice.  In  many  different 
speeches  they  showed  that  they  did  not  in  the 
least  shrink  from  death  in  defence  of  their  coun- 
try; and  they  begged  for  guns  and  spears,  and 
that  every  able-bodied  man  should  be  drilled,  so 
that  one  and  all  might  fight  in  defence  of  the  fa- 
therland. 

The  Prime  Minister  spoke  again  as  follows: 
"This  also  I  have  to  say,  sirs:  You  have  heard 
the  demands  of  the  French,  and  liberty  of  choice 
has  been  given  you,  O  ye  people,  as  to  whether 
they  should  be  acceded  to  or  not,  and  I  see  that 
you  refuse.  Now  this  is  the  message  the  sover- 
eign intrusted  me  with:  1  When  you  have  heard 
the  people's  reply,  and  they  do  not  accede  to  the 
claims  of  the  French,  but  reject  them,  then  say 
this  to  them:  All  countries  have  been  divided 
out  by  God,  that  each  nation  may  possess  its  own; 
and  God  gave  this  land  to  my  ancestors,  and  has 
now  intrusted  it  to  me.  This  country  had  its 
boundaries  fixed  by  Andrianimpoinimerina,  and 
was  conquered  by  the  prowess  of  Radama  I.  Our 
grandfathers  were  maimed  and  hindered  in  those 


THE  ULTIMATUM  IN  ANTANANARIVO.  215 

days  as  they  carried  into  execution  the  purposes 
of  Andrianimpoinimerina;  yea,  some  of  you  now 
present  were  there  and  saw  these  things  with 
your  own  eyes.  And  this  kingdom  has  been 
governed  in  justice  and  righteousness,  and  the 
way  in  which  I  have  ruled  over  it  you  have  both 
seen  and  heard.  We  made  treaties  with  foreign- 
ers across  the  seas;  nay,  whether  we  had  treaties 
or  not,  all  foreigners  have  received  respectful  and 
honorable  treatment;  and  even  when  they  did 
things  that  grieved  us  I  have  borne  with  them, 
from  my  desire  to  see  wisdom  advancing  in  this 
country.  All  foreigners  who  have  made  treaties 
with  us  have  acknowledged  that  Madagascar  be- 
longs to  me;  and  even  the  French  acknowledged 
this  in  the  treaty  they  made  with  me  in  1868. 
Yet  now  the  French  say,  ( 1  A  third  of  Madagas- 
car belongs  to  us. ' ' 

11  'Therefore  I  say  to  you,  O  my  people,  that 
if  this  country*,  which  God  has  intrusted  to  me, 
the  country  where  my  ancestors  rest  and  where 
the  bones  of  your  forefathers  lie  buried,  is  claimed 
by  others,  why,  then  I  stand  up  in  defence  of  the 
goodly  heritage  God  has  given  me.  God  made 
me  a  woman;  but  when  any  one  tries  to  seize  the 
heritage  He  has  given  me,  and  the  country  sub- 
dued by  my  ancestors  is  disturbed,  then  I  feel 
strong  to  go  forth  as  your  leader;  for  I  should 


2l6  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

feel  degraded,  O  iny  people,  were  I  not  to  defend 
the  heritage  which  God  has  given  me. 

"  'This  is  a  righteous  war  in  which  we  are 
engaged.  I  have  made  every  possible  effort  to 
maintain  friendly  relations;  I  have  borne  and 
submitted  to  things  that  no  one  could  have  ex- 
pected me  to  bear.  I  am  not  invading  others 
nor  seeking  to  destroy  others;  but  I  am  invaded 
by  others  and  others  are  seeking  to  destroy  me. 
Fear  not,  therefore,  seeing  that  you  have  the 
right  on  your  side;  for  if  those  who  are  unjustly 
invading,  and  claim  what  belongs  to  another, 
have  no  fear,  much  less  we  who  are  defending 
our  own.  I  have  all  confidence,  therefore,  O  my 
people,  for  the  right  is  the  weapon  with  which 
we  are  defending  this  country,  and  the  issues  of 
war  are  in  the  hands  of  God.  Is  it  not  so,  O  my 
people?'  " 

u  It  is  so,"  said  the  people. 

"  'I  have  no  wish  to  excite  you,  but  report 
says  they  will  come  up  here  (into  the  interior), 
and  will  break  open  the  tombs  where  your  fore- 
fathers and  your  fathers  rest,  that  they  may  seize 
your  property;  for  the  wealth  of  the  Malagasy, 
they  say,  is  to  be  found  in  their  tombs.  Now 
can  you  bear  that,  O  my  people?'  " 

Then  the  people  replied  with  a  loud  shout, 
"  God  forbid  that  we  should  do  that !" 


THE  ULTIMATUM  IN  ANTANANARIVO.  217 

The  Prime  Minister  spoke  once  more,  saying, 
"The  proclamation  of  the  sovereign  has  been  an- 
nounced to  you,  but  I  also  have  this  to  say  to  you, 

0  ye  people:  I  watch  over  the  interests  and  per- 
son of  the  queen,  and  possibly  some  will  be  say- 
ing, 'Will  the  Prime  Minister  be  going  to  the  war 
and  no  longer  watch  over  the  interests  and  person 
of  the  sovereign?'  Let  me  tell  you  that  when  my 
father  and  mother  begat  me,  it  was  that  I  might 
protect  and  honor  this  country;  so  side  by  side 
will  we  fight,  and  I  will  make  this  body  of  mine 
as  the  rampart  of  Madagascar. 

"Were  we  fighting  for  that  which  was  wrong, 
even  though  we  said  we  would  fight,  there  would 
be  cause  for  fear;  but  when,  as  in  our  case,  it  is 
for  the  right,  there  is  nothing  to  fear;  for  should 
one  die  in  that,  it  would  be  an  honor  to  die  de- 
fending one's  fatherland.  All  of  us  must  die; 
and  if  we  are  to  die  defending  our  fatherland, 
why,  that  is  the  portion  which  God  has  allotted 
us.  Or,  may  be,  you  have  not  the  courage  to  de- 
fend the  inheritance  God  has  given  you." 

"  God  forbid  !"  said  the  people. 

"I  declare  here,  in  your  presence,  that  I  dare 
defend  this  country.    I  call  you  to  witness  what 

1  say.  We  will  fight  side  by  side.  So  do  not  be 
faint-hearted  or  alarmed  because  of  the  prowess 
of  the  French,  for  there  is  God  looking  and  judg- 


2l8  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

ing  what  is  going  on.  The  French  are  a  great 
nation;  but  shall  this  make  us  afraid  to  maintain 
the  right  in  defence  of  our  own  ?  God  forbid ! 
For  until  the  last  man  has  been  cut  down  they 
shall  never  be  allowed  to  have  this  country !  Is 
it  not  so,  O  ye  people  ?" 

"  It  is  so !"  said  the  people. 

' '  And  this  too  is  the  message  of  the  sovereign : 
'  The  people  belonging  to  the  nation  that  is  fight- 
ing with  us  have  now  all  gone,  and  only  those 
who  are  on  good  terms  with  us  remain.  So  I  tell 
you  this  that  you  may  all  know  if  n 

We  require  no  clearer  indication  of  the  spirit 
of  childlike  dependence  upon  God  which  has 
been  growing  among  the  people  than  the  tone  of 
this  proclamation.  There  is  no  fiery  denuncia- 
tion of  their  enemies,  no  attempt  to  stir  up  angry 
feelings  or  to  rekindle  the  dormant  savagery  of 
the  half-civilized  villagers,  and  no  argument  is 
used  but  such  as  would  commend  itself  to  the 
judgment  of  the  most  highly-civilized  nation  in 
the  world.  There  is  nothing  but  the  laudable 
desire  to  defend  their  own,  "  that  which  God  has 
given  them,"  from  unfounded  and  unjustifiable 
claims.  They  have  determined,  and  those  who 
know  the  Malagasy  character  know  full  well  that 
their  determination  will  not  be  shaken  either  by 
the  bluster  or  the  cajoling  of  their  enemies. 


THE  ULTIMATUM  IN  ANTANANARIVO.  219 

And,  understanding  the  character  of  the  French 
claim,  one  can  only  pray  that  the  "God  who  is 
looking  and  judging  what  is  going  on"  will  di- 
rect the  course  of  events  into  paths  of  peace, 
righteousness,  and  prosperity. 

The  day  following  the  ' '  Kabary ' 1  an  answer 
was  sent  to  the  French  admiral,  couched  in  the 
following  terms: 

"  Antananarivo,  June  7,  1S83. 

"Sirs:  The  1 ultimatum'  you  sent  to  the 
Government  of  the  Queen  of  Madagascar  on  the 
1st  of  June,  1883,  has  been  received;  and  in  re- 
ply to  it  this  is  announced  to  you : 

"The  Government  of  the  sovereign  of  Mada- 
gascar is  grieved,  for  it  does  not  see  how  it  can 
carry  on  negotiations  with  you  in  reference  to 
other  matters  unless  it  has  the  assurance  that  you 
acknowledge  that  Madagascar  belongs  to  its  (i.  e., 
the  Government's)  sovereign.  Your  Government 
recognizes  this  fully  in  the  treaty  made  between 
the  two  kingdoms  in  1868. 

"As  one  among  other  proofs  of  this  maybe 
instanced  the  claim  for  indemnity  recently  made 
at  Marambitsy  by  the  French  Government  in  the 
affair  of  the  dhow  'Touele,'  that  being  within  the 
territory  now  claimed  in  the  'ultimatum.' 
"(Signed) 

"  ANDRIAMANIFY, 
"  Acting  Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs." 


220  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


CHAPTER  X. 

BOMBARDMENT  OF  TAMATAVE. 

Meeting  of  British  Subjects  at  the  Consulate  at  Tamatave.  For- 
mation of  Vigilance  Committee.  Natives  Hope  to  Draw  Fire 
of  French  Ships  into  European  Quarter.  Liberty  to  go  on 
Board  the  "  Dryad."  Watch  on  Shore.  Bombardment. 
French  Landing.  Town  Burned.  Houses  Looted.  Other 
Ports  Bombarded.  Imprisonment  of  Mr.  Shaw.  Of  H.  B. 
M.'s  Consular  Clerk.  Death  of  Mr.  Pakenham.  Arrival  of 
French  Consul  from  Zanzibar.  Release  of  Mr.  Shaw.  The 
"  Stella  "  from  Mauritius.  French  Ministry  not  Responsible 
for  Tamatave  Incident.    Expression  of  Regret  Spontaneous. 

On  Monday,  June  4,  a  deputation  from  the 
British  residents  waited  011  Mr.  Pakenham  at  the 
Consulate  by  appointment,  to  seek  official  advice 
with  respect  to  the  critical  position  of  affairs  in 
Madagascar.  At  their  request  an  invitation  had 
also  been  sent  through  the  consul  to  Captain  John- 
stone of  H.  M.  S.  "Dryad"  to  meet  them  and 
assist  with  his  practical  and  valuable  advice  the 
objects  of  the  deputation.  One  of  their  number 
having  been  previously  appointed  president,  he 
introduced  the  deputation,  and,  according  to  the 
advice  obtained,  a  standing  committee  was  formed. 
Steps  were  taken  to  provide  shelter  and  provis- 
ions for  indigent  British  subjects  coming  in  from 
the  country,  and  to  bury  all  petroleum,  rum,  etc., 


BOMBARDMENT  OF  T  AM  AT  AVE.  221 

that  might  prove  dangerous  to  the  general  welfare 
of  the  place  in  case  of  fire. 

On  June  6  notice  was  sent  to  the  British  sub- 
jects that  they  were  at  liberty  to  go  on  board  the 
"Dryad,"  if  they  wished,  and  that  boats  would 
be  in  waiting  at  the  beach  to  carry  them  off  with 
their  personal  effects.  The  French  subjects  had 
been  already  ordered  to  go  on  board  the  men-of- 
war  lying  in  the  harbor. 

It  was  currently  reported  that  the  natives  had 
been  advised,  when  the  bombardment  commenced, 
to  take  their  soldiers  into  the  foreign  part  of  the 
town,  and  thus  draw  the  fire  of  the  French  upon 
the  foreign  property,  as  it  was  said,  u  If  you  do 
that  you  will  embroil  the  French  with  the  other 
powers,  and  so  while  they  are  quarrelling  you 
will  be  left  alone."  As  president  of  the  commit- 
tee I  was  asked  to  go  to  the  governor,  partly  to 
ascertain  if  this  were  true  and  to  endeavor  to  dis- 
suade the  Malagasy  from  this  course,  which  I 
was  fortunately  able  to  do.  The  people  decided 
not  to  adopt  that  course,  and  thus  the  town  was 
saved  from  ruin,  as  the  admiral  had  determined 
to  "blow  the  whole  place  to  pieces  and  respect 
no  one's  property  or  flags  if  the  Hovas  came  down 
into  the  town." 

Tamatave  from  that  time  had  the  appearance 
of  a  deserted  town,  and  anything  more  desolate 


222  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

it  is  scarcely  possible  to  conceive.  Shops  were 
closed,  and  neither  native  nor  foreigner  was  to  be 
seen  in  the  streets.  Ail  was  silent  and,  but  for 
the  life  in  the  harbor,  dead.  Here  and  there 
from  the  corners  of  the  streets  one  would  see  a 
pig  or  two,  in  pure  indifference  to  the  altered 
state  of  affairs,  prowling  about  looking  for  food  in 
the  place  of  that  which  they  had  failed  to  obtain 
as  usual  from  their  masters,  and  not  at  all  discon- 
certed by  the  strange  quiet — the  calm  that  prece- 
ded the  storm.  Numbers  of  fowls  and  ducks 
escaped  from  their  yards  and  congregated  together 
for  company  were  to  be  met  with,  only  waiting 
to  be  appropriated  by  those  who  could  drive  them 
into  their  own  premises. 

On  Saturday  morning  our  usual  prayer-meet- 
ing was  held,  and  as  it  was  felt  by  all  that  most 
probably  it  would  be  the  last  time  we  should  be 
able  to  meet  together,  seeing  how  unlikely  it  was 
that  any  service  could  be  held  on  the  following 
day,  it  was  unusually  well  attended.  In  fact, 
with  the  exception  of  the  few  necessary  sentries, 
all  the  natives  in  Tamatave  were  present  from 
the  governor  downwards.  Those  who  engaged 
in  prayer  were  influenced  by  no  feeling  of  the  vin- 
dictive war-spirit;  there  were  no  prayers  for  the 
lives  of  their  enemies  and  no  cries  for  vengeance 
upon  them.    Prayers  for  a  righteous  vindication, 


BOMBARDMENT  OF  TAMATAVE.  223 

for  guidance,  for  faith  to  trust  where  they  could 
not  see,  and  for  eventual  peace  and  good-will, 
were  the  only  petitions  heard  in  Tamatave  on  the 
eve  of  the  bombardment.  And  although  the  poor 
fellows  knew  that  in  a  few  hours  they  would  be 
houseless  and  homeless,  driven  away  by  those 
who  were  trying  to  take  their  country  from  them, 
yet  they  acknowledged  that  their  Father's  hand 
was  guiding  all  things  and  would  make  all 
things  work  together  for  good  to  those  who  love 
him. 

During  the  day  I  heard  that  in  the  event, 
which  was  looked  for,  of  the  answer  to  the  ulti- 
matum being  unfavorable  to  the  French,  the  Mal- 
agasy intended  to  retire  during  the  night  inland, 
and  not  attempt  to  oppose  the  French  while  under 
cover  of  the  guns  of  their  vessels.  That  night 
there  was  very  little  sleep  for  any  of  us  who  re- 
mained on  shore.  The  time  for  the  reply  to  the 
ultimatum  to  arrive  expired  at  midnight.  At 
about  ii  o'clock  p.  m.  a  native  messenger  brought 
a  letter  to  the  French  Commissioner,  and  very 
soon  afterwards  he  went  on  board  the  "Flore," 
and  there  remained.  Therefore  we  knew  that 
the  answer  had  arrived,  and  that  it  was  a  refusal 
to  grant  the  absurd  demands  of  France.  We 
formed  ourselves  into  a  watch,  to  cooperate  in 
case  of  necessity  with  the  Consular  guard  from 


224  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

the  u  Dryad,"  and  waited,  anticipating  that  at 
any  moment  the  bombardment  might  commence. 

The  Consular  guard  referred  to  above  consist- 
ed of  a  body  of  twenty  marines,  sent  by  the  com- 
mander of  H.  M.'s  ship  to  insure  the  safety  of 
the  person  of  H.  B.  M.'s  consul  and  of  the 
archives  under  his  charge,  as  also  to  be  ready  in 
case  of  emergency  to  render  assistance  to  the  Brit- 
ish subjects  who  remained  on  shore.  The  squad 
took  up  its  quarters  in  an  out-house  adjoining  the 
Consulate,  and  constant  communication  was  kept 
up  between  the  officer  in  charge  and  the  sailors 
lying  in  the  two  cutters  off  the  landing-place. 
These  were  kept  in  watchful  readiness  to  receive 
British  subjects  remaining  on  shore,  should  it  be 
necessary  for  them  to  accept  the  refuge  offered 
by  the  man-of-war,  in  case  incendiaries  in  force 
should  simultaneously  fire  the  town  at  different 
points. 

However,  to  the  agreeable  surprise  of  all,  the 
night  passed  quietly,  and  at  daybreak  all  was 
quiet.  At  6:15  A.  m.  one  of  the  French  vessels, 
the  "Nievre,"  left  her  moorings  and  steamed 
round  into  the  south  bay,  in  which  she  had  been 
taking  soundings  for  a  day  or  two  previously. 
As  soon  as  she  was  anchored  in  position,  the 
"  Boursaint "  fired  the  signal  gun,  and  the  tri- 
color was  run  up  to  each  masthead  and  the  bom- 


BOMBARDMENT  OF  TAMATAVE.  227 

bardinent  began.  Six  vessels,  the  "Flore,"  the 
"Creuse,"  u  Beau  temps-  Beaupre,"  "Nievre," 
4 'Forfait,"  and  the  u  Boursaint,"  were  engaged 
in  throwing  shot  and  shell  into  and  beyond  the 
fort  for  an  hour  and  a  half,  as  quickly  as  they 
could  fire,  although  no  answering  shot  was  fired 
from  the  shore.  The  first  shell  from  the  "For- 
fait" fell  into  the  native  bazaar,  and  soon  a  col- 
umn of  smoke  and  flames  showed  that  it  was  on 
fire.  Almost  at  the  same  time  a  shell  from  the 
"Nievre"  burst  among  some  native  huts  on  the 
southwest  of  the  town  and  fired  them.  Anta- 
nambao,  the  native  town  near  my  house,  fol- 
lowed, and  other  fires  close  to  Mr.  Aitken's 
house  (where  I  was  staying,  as  my  house  was 
exposed  to  the  cross-fire  of  the  "Flore"  and  the 
"Nievre"),  showed  that  the  natives  were  ma- 
king an  attempt  to  burn  down  the  whole  foreign 
portion  of  the  town.  At  the  same  time  an  ex- 
plosion took  place  in  the  custom-house;  and  pres- 
ently a  couple  of  natives  were  seen  making  their 
way  out  to  the  back  of  the  town,  after  having 
lighted  the  train  communicating  with  a  barrel  of 
gunpowder,  placed  there  for  the  destruction  of 
the  premises  around  the  custom-house.  About 
7  o'clock,  fortunately,  rain  began  to  fall,  and  the 
fires  were  rendered  harmless  to  the  surrounding 
buildings.    At  7:45  firing  ceased  for  an  hour, 


228  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

and  then  reopened  more  slowly,  and  continued 
during  the  remainder  of  the  day.  Fresh  fires 
broke  out  during  the  afternoon  and  raged  through- 
out the  night.  During  the  cessation  in  the  morn- 
ing some  of  us,  who  had  been  watching  the  ex- 
traordinary display  of  six  large  men-of-war  shell- 
ing the  deserted  and  silent  forts  and  town,  went 
out  to  the  neighborhood  of  my  house.  But  just 
as  we  arrived  abreast  of  the  soldiers'  town  the 
fire  there  broke  out  again,  and  fearing  that  the 
"  Flore"  would  reopen  fire  upon  it,  suspecting 
the  presence  of  natives,  we  turned  to  retrace  our 
steps.  This  we  had  scarcely  determined  upon 
when  shells  from  the  fleet  once  more  poured  into 
the  place.  At  another  time  in  the  day  an  attempt 
was  made  by  some  of  us  on  shore  to  prevent  the 
fire  in  the  bazaar  from  spreading  into  the  foreign 
portion  of  the  town;  but  while  walking  along 
behind  the  houses  and  in  view  of  the  French 
ships,  a  shell  was  fired,  and  burst  not  more  than 
twenty  yards  in  front  of  us,  injuring  a  part  of  the 
S.  P.  G.  premises. 

During  the  afternoon  M.  Baudais  and  his  vice- 
consul  were  rowed  near  to  the  beach,  to  ascertain 
from  those  who  had  remained  on  shore  the  condi- 
tion of  the  town  and  if  there  were  many  natives 
about.  Although  they  heard  that  there  were  none 
to  be  seen  even  near  the  fort,  they  were  not  will- 


BOMBARDMENT  OF  TAMATAVE.  229 

ing  to  trust  themselves  on  shore,  but  speedily  re- 
turned to  their  ships,  and  firing  continued. 

Sunday  night  was  an  anxious  time  for  us,  as 
the  town  was  in  flames  in  different  places,  and  as 
the  French  had  not  sufficient  confidence  to  land, 
take  possession  of  what  the  natives  had  left  for 
them,  and  protect  the  property  of  the  Europeans, 
whom  they  had  deprived  of  their  wonted  pro- 
tectors from  robbery  and  incendiarism.  No  guns 
wrere  fired  during  Sunday  night,  and  every  facility 
was  thus  given  to  wandering  bands  of  robbers  for 
pillaging  and  burning  the  town.  All  the  Eng- 
lishmen on  shore  formed  themselves  into  a  watch 
to  give  the  alarm  and  prevent  anything  like  a 
concerted  attack  or  general  conflagration. 

On  Monday,  as  soon  as  it  was  light,  the  boats 
of  the  fleet  were  seen  stretching  in  a  long  line  from 
the  bows  of  the  "  Forfait,"  on  the  stern  of  which 
we  had  seen  the  scaling  ladders  rigged  during  the 
Sunday  afternoon.  About  6  o'clock  the  boats 
began  to  move  towards  the  shore  under  the  con- 
tinual fire  of  the  "  Boursaint,n  which  sent  shells 
and  shot  into  the  battery  and  beyond  it,  and  also 
across  the  Point  Hastie,  to  the  south,  into  the 
Betsimisaraka  town.  One  company  of  the  French 
landed  at  the  custom-house  and  made  their  way 
through  the  town  by  the  street  south  of  the  Rue 
Royale.     The  remainder  landed  in  the  utmost 


23O  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

confusion  on  the  beach  opposite  the  British  Con- 
sulate. A  more  disorderly  landing  can  scarcely 
be  imagined;  the  men  all  seemed  to  be  talking 
and  shouting  together,  and  the  officers  seemed  to 
be  chiefly  engrossed  with  the  problem  of  how  to 
get  through  the  surf  without  wetting  their  boots. 
One  company  was  told  off  to  make  directly  for 
the  fort  along  the  beach,  while  the  remainder 
marched  in  fours  up  the  main  street,  dragging 
with  them  two  small  brass  guns,  and  provided 
with  field  telegraph  and  hospital  gear.  In  little 
less  than  an  hour  signal  flags  were  hoisted  at  the 
flagstaff  in  the  fort;  at  the  same  time  we  could 
see  from  the  roof  of  the  house  where  we  had  kept 
watch  during  the  night  that  a  squad  of  marines 
was  on  the  sand-hills  near  our  house. 

Several  of  us  then  went  up  and  found  that  the 
servants  who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  cellar  were 
well,  though  much  frightened,  three  or  four  shells 
having  burst  in  the  garden  on  Sunday  and  done 
some  slight  damage.  We  went  to  the  top  of  the 
belvedere  and  could  distinctly  see  the  Hovas  leav- 
ing their  inland  fort  and  magazine,  Manjakandri- 
anombana,  about  three  miles  from  Tamatave,  and 
taking  a  southerly  direction  along  the  ridge  of 
hills  stretching  away  to  Imahasoa  and  the  river 
Ivondrona.  We  walked  through  the  town  in  or- 
der to  ascertain  the  amount  of  destruction,  and 


BOMBARDMENT  OF  T  AM  AT  AVE.  231 

found  that  very  few,  if  any,  of  the  natives  had 
been  killed;  at  any  rate,  no  bodies  were  to  be 
seen  except  those  of  two  who  had  been  killed  by 
bayonet  thrusts,  having  been  suspected  of  at- 
tempting to  fire  the  town.  But  a  fearful  scene 
of  destruction  was  presented,  houses  even  of  Eu- 
ropeans pierced  by  shells  and  partly  blown  up; 
others  with  the  roofs  broken  to  pieces;  while  the 
native  houses  were  either  burning  or  consumed 
during  the  past  day.  The  various  domestic  ani- 
mals that  had  perished  were  lying  about  in  all 
directions;  but  scarcely  one  of  the  host  of  dogs 
that  used  to  make  night  hideous  could  be  seen. 
Near  one  house  we  found  a  couple  of  kittens,  who 
had  lost  their  mother,  being  nursed  and  tended 
in  a  touching  way  by  a  pig  who  had,  we  pre- 
sumed, lost  its  litter  in  the  conflagration.  Con- 
sidering them  as  curiosities,  we  looted  the  kittens, 
much  to  the  pig's  annoyance,  and  carried  them 
home. 

Another  curious  sight  met  our  eyes  when  we 
went  on  board  the  "  Dryad,"  to  let  Captain  John- 
stone know  how  matters  stood  on  shore.  The 
decks  were  literally  full  of  British  subjects,  and 
the  greatest  credit  is  due  to  the  commander  and 
his  officers  for  the  orderly  arrangements  made  for 
the  comfort  of  such  a  large  company  in  addition 
to  their  own  crew.  In  fact,  from  the  commeuce- 
14 


232  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

ment  of  hostilities,  the  British  commander  proved 
by  his  courteous  firmness  that  he  was  just  the 
man  required  to  deal  with  the  brow-beating  tactics 
of  the  French  admiral  towards  the  English  offi- 
cials, and  that,  while  he  was  ever  ready  to  accede 
to  all  the  legitimate  requests  of  the  French,  he 
had  no  intention  of  abating  one  jot  of  the  respect 
that  ought  to  be  paid  by  officers  of  one  power  to 
those  sailing  under  the  flag  of  another  and  neu- 
tral nation.  The  British  residents  at  Tamatave 
owe  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  Captain  Johnstone  for 
the  timely  and  clear-headed  advice  he  was  able 
to  give  them,  and  for  the  determined  and  plucky 
way  he  conducted  British  affairs  placed  in  his 
hands;  while  at  the  same  time  every  effort  was 
evidently  made  by  him  to  act  courteously  towards 
the  French  authorities  and  not  wound  their  ex- 
treme sensitiveness. 

On  Monday  night,  after  the  first  watch  had 
passed  off  quietly,  and  remembering  that  the 
French  troops,  having  landed,  would  be,  or  ought 
to  be,  a  protection  to  the  town,  we  relaxed  our 
efforts,  and  discontinued  the  watch  for  the  re- 
mainder of  the  night.  But  in  the  morning,  while 
we  were  standing  on  the  veranda  of  the  house, 
two  of  the  servants  who  had  been  left  in  my 
house  were  seen  coming  down  the  street,  and  in- 
formed us  by  their  scared  faces  before  they  came 


BOMBARDMENT  OF  T  AM  AT  AVE.  233 

near  that  something  had  happened.  When  they 
arrived  we  heard  with  dismay  that  the  house  had 
been  entered  during  the  night  and  goods  stolen  or 
broken.  We  went  off  immediately  to  ascertain 
the  extent  of  the  damage,  informing  H.  B.  M.'s 
consul  en  route  of  what  had  occurred.  It  appears 
that  the  robbers  had  broken  open  the  front  door, 
and  had  evidently  searched  either  for  papers  or 
money,  as  furniture  was  broken  and  cut  open,  in- 
dicating that  a  search  had  been  made;  but  how 
much  had  been  carried  off  it  was  impossible  to 
say. 

From  what  we  could  ascertain,  it  seems  that 
the  commander  of  the  fort  drew  in  his  pickets  at 
night  close  round  the  fort,  thus  leaving  a  free 
passage  for  the  natives,  who  were  lurking  about 
for  pillage  or  for  firing  the  houses,  to  enter  the 
town  unopposed.  In  fact,  we  heard  that  a  mes- 
sage had  been  sent  to  the  commander  of  the 
u  Dryad,"  from  the  admiral,  to  say  that  the  lat- 
ter would  hold  the  former  responsible  for  the 
town,  because  he  had  sent  a  guard  on  shore  to 
protect  the  archives  of  the  British  Consulate.  It 
seemed  as  though  the  French  commander  would 
not  have  been  sorry  if  the  natives  had  entered  the 
town  to  pillage  and  burn  it,  as  every  facility  was 
given  them;  and  an  attempt  was  made  to  throw 
the  blame  upon  the  English  commander. 


234  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

Leaving  my  house  to  return  into  the  town,  I 
saw  a  squad  of  French  soldiers  seize  upon  a  couple 
of  natives  and  compel  them  to  inarch  before  them 
towards  the  fort.  Fearing  that,  in  the  absence  of 
a  knowledge  of  the  language,  some  misunder- 
standing might  lead  to  the  men  being  shot,  I  of- 
fered to  translate  for  the  corporal.  This  he  ac- 
cepted with  thanks,  and,  in  their  examination, 
the  men  said  they  were  only  stealing  from  the 
houses  of  the  Hovas,  and  said  this  in  such  a  way 
as  to  give  both  my  companion,  a  European,  and 
myself  the  impression  that  they  had  heard  from 
good  sources  that  they  would  not  be  punished  by 
the  French  for  such  acts. 

My  servants  being  now  thoroughly  frightened, 
I  removed  them  to  Mr.  Aitken's  house,  as  send- 
ing them  away  into  the  country  was  very  much 
like  exposing  them  to  certain  death.  I  was  the 
more  ready  to  do  this  as  the  men  had  stayed  with 
me  at  my  request  to  assist  with  the  ambulance,  if 
such  should  prove  necessary,  and,  having  stayed, 
I  felt  bound  to  do  the  best  I  could  for  them. 
Others  had  made  attempts  to  keep  their  servants, 
but  had  failed. 

On  Tuesday  night  the  house  and  bungalow 
were  again  broken  open,  and  furniture,  papers, 
etc. ,  were  scattered  all  over  the  compound.  My 
landlord  had  gone  during  the  afternoon  to  ask 


BOMBARDMENT  OF  TAMATAVE.  235 

the  commander  of  the  fort  to  put  his  picket, 
which  he  had  placed  near,  in  my  compound,  as 
it  occupies  a  commanding  situation.  I  also  went 
with  him  to  offer  a  room  for  their  accommodation 
on  consideration  of  the  protection  to  my  remain- 
ing furniture  and  of  the  saving  of  expense  and 
trouble  of  transporting  it  all  into  the  town.  This 
he  roughly  refused,  saying  he  was  not  put  there 
to  protect  our  property,  and  should  place  his 
pickets  where  he  liked. 

Accordingly,  on  Wednesday,  with  the  help  of 
my  own  men  and  Mr.  Aitken's  servants,  I  com- 
menced to  remove  what  furniture  remained  to  his 
house  in  the  town;  but  on  Wednesday  evening 
the  commander  of  the  fort  sent  to  Mr.  Aitken  to 
say  that  at  8  o'clock  on  Thursday  morning  a 
picket  of  soldiers  would  be  placed  in  my  house. 
At  6:30  that  morning  another  European  and  my- 
self went  together  to  the  house,  and  found  that 
during  the  night  not  only  had  the  premises  been 
ransacked,  goods  stolen,  and  furniture  destroyed, 
but  the  cellar,  containing  among  other  stores  some 
bottles  of  claret,  and  the  dispensary,  containing  a 
great  number  of  medicines,  had  been  entered,  and 
the  bottles  either  broken,  stolen,  or  thrown  out 
into  the  garden.  We  at  once  collected  together 
all  we  could  find  and  sent  them  into  the  town. 
We  were  just  completing  this  work  when  the 


236  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

picket  arrived,  and  orders  were  given  to  haul 
down  our  flags.  The  French  flag  was  hoisted  at 
the  fort,  and  Tamatave  declared  to  be  in  a  state 
of  siege.  Various  decrees  promulgated  by  the 
admiral  were  attached  to  conspicuous  places  in 
the  town.  Among  them  was  one  appointing  the 
French  vice-consul  to  be  mayor  of  Tamatave; 
another  declaring  all  previously  existing  consular 
offices  to  be  annulled;  another  stating  that  "All 
persons  of  African  or  Asiatic  race  are  prohibited 
from  remaining  in  the  European  quarter  from 
5:30  p.  m.  to  6:30  A.  M.,  unless  guaranteed  by  a 
European  with  the  approval  of  the  authority. 
Permits  of  residence,  stating  name  and  quality  of 
the  guarantor,  will  be  issued  to  the  parties  inter- 
ested by  the  superior  commander  whenever  the 
guarantee  offered  appears  to  him  to  be  satisfac- 
tory.'' 

On  Friday  I  sent  in  the  names  of  my  servants 
and  their  wives  and  of  my  schoolmistress  and  her 
mother,  spending  the  day  as  before  in  removing 
what  furniture  I  could  save,  my  men  working 
heartily,  although  they  had  lost  their  all. 

On  Saturday  morning,  June  16,  about  7:30, 
the  mayor  came  to  me  and  said  he  had  received 
my  note  with  the  names  of  my  servants,  and  that 
if  I  would  go  to  the  fort  at  8  or  8:30  the  passports 
would  be  given  me  by  the  commander;  that  there 


BOMBARDMENT  OF  TAMATAVE.  237 

would  be  no  difficulty  in  my  case,  and  that  my 
going  was  merely  a  matter  of  form.  On  arrival  I 
found  that  the  mayor  was  there  before  me.  He 
took  me  to  the  commander  and  accused  me  of 
harboring  spies.  The  officer,  instead  of  giving 
me  the  passports,  said  that  by  their  names  it  ap- 
peared my  servants  were  Hovas.  I  explained 
that  I  had  certainly  written  their  names  a  la 
Hova,  but  in  fact  they  were  Betsileo,  a  tribe  re- 
sembling the  Betsimisaraka,  and  under  subjection 
to  the  Hovas.  I  said,  "The  only  Hovas  in  the 
list  are  the  schoolmistress  and  her  mother,  the 
one  being  too  ill  and  the  other  too  old  to  leave 
Tamatave  before  the  bombardment."  I  was  then 
asked  where  they  were,  and  upon  my  replying 
that  I  had  left  them  at  Mr.  Aitken's  house,  where 
they  had  slept  the  past  few  nights,  I  was  roughly 
told  by  the  commander  that  he  would  keep  me 
under  arrest  till  they  arrived.  I  asked  to  be 
allowed  to  write  for  them  to  be  sent,  and  this  I 
did,  the  mayor  agreeing  to  see  my  note  delivered 
to  Mr.  Aitken. 

The  mayor  was  the  instigator  of  this  proceed- 
ing, I  believe;  and  from  various  statements  made 
I  think  that  spies  had  been  for  some  time  past 
employed  to  watch  me,  and  any  excuse  was  seized 
upon  to  give  a  color  of  reason  for  my  arrest.  As 
a  writer  in  "The  Planter's  Gazette"  truly  re- 


23S  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

marks,  (( It  was  dangerons  to  be  an  Englishman 
or  a  Protestant  in  Tamatave."  I  had  very  often 
acted  as  interpreter  and  translator  for  Mr.  Paken- 
ham,  H.  B.  M.'s  consul,  who  was  not  conversant 
with  the  Malagasy  language,  and  although  not 
an  official  translator  nor  sworn  interpreter,  I  had 
been  intrusted  with  important  documents;  at  the 
same  time  the  Hova  Government  applied  to  me 
in  similar  circumstances;  so  that  the  whole  corre- 
spondence on  both  sides  sometimes  passed  through 
my  hands.  This,  it  seems,  has  given  rise  to  the 
suspicion  that  I  was  private  secretary  to  the  Brit- 
ish consul  and  adviser  to  the  Hova  governor, 
both  of  which  statements  are  altogether  untrue, 
as  I  have  been  most  careful  to  refrain  from  any- 
thing like  entanglement  in  the  politics  of  the 
country,  and  only  as  a  private  friend  of  the  con- 
sul and  of  the  Hova  governor  did  I  undertake  to 
assist  them.  But  to  have  been  a  friend  of  either 
of  these  was,  to  the  French  officials,  sufficient  to 
condemn  a  man. 

Meanwhile,  with  very  little  ceremony,  I  was 
marched  off  into  a  tent  and  placed  under  a  guard 
of  four  armed  soldiers  and  a  corporal,  and  told  I 
wras  not  to  remove  from  the  tent  on  pain  of  being 
shot;  and  thus  I  was  kept  until  night  in  a  small, 
hot  tent,  the  door  of  which  was  kept  closed,  al- 
though I  had  seen  that  my  servants  arrived  dur- 


BOMBARDMENT  OF  T  AM  AT  AVE.  239 

ing  the  early  part  of  the  day.  The  harsh  and 
uncalled-for  treatment  caused  me  to  be  in  con- 
stant dread  lest  from  any  confused  or  contradic- 
tory statements  of  my  servants  more  extreme 
measures  might  be  resorted  to. 

About  6  o'clock  I  was  placed  in  the  centre  of 
a  squad  of  soldiers,  told  to  march  with  them  to 
the  landing-place  at  the  other  end  of  the  town,  to 
hold  no  communication  with  any  one,  and  if  I 
disobeyed  I  should  be  executed.  Arrived  at  the 
beach,  I  was  put  into  the  "Nievre's"  boat  and 
taken  on  board,  together  with  Mr.  Aitken,  his 
two  clerks,  and  my  servants.  We  Europeans 
were  confined  in  separate  cabins,  and  not  allowed 
to  hold  any  communication,  armed  sentries  being 
told  off  to  guard  us.  The  following  day  the  other 
Europeans  were  released  without  any  form  of 
trial  or  examination,  but  I  was  still  kept  in  my 
cabin  and  fed  upon  a  portion  of  the  sailors'  ra- 
tions served  in  a  bucket  and  without  knife,  fork, 
or  any  utensils.  The  food  was  of  the  coarsest 
description,  a  small  piece  of  meat  once  a  day,  and 
soup  made  of  beans  or  peas  for  the  only  other 
meal  during  the  day,  a  piece  of  bread  and  a  little 
claret  accompanying  each.  It  was  with  the  great- 
est difficulty  that  I  could  get  a  little  water  to 
drink  or  to  wash  with.  Hence  it  was  not  won- 
derful that  in  a  few  days  I  was  laid  up  with  an 


240  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

attack  of  fever.  During  my  illness  the  doctor 
was  not  only  very  attentive,  but  tried  his  best  to 
alleviate  the  harshness  of  rny  imprisonment. 

I  was  allowed  to  converse  with  the  officers  of 
the  "Nievre,"  and  I  made  several  unsuccessful 
attempts  to  discover  why  I  was  detained.  But 
during  a  conversation  with  one  of  the  officers  it 
was  made  very  clear  that  the  French  thought 
that  every  English  missionary  must  necessarily 
be  a  political  agent,  laboring  not  only  for  the 
extension  of  Christ's  kingdom,  but  also  for  the 
aggrandizement  of  England.  France  has  been 
willing  to  use  Jesuit  priests  for  political  purposes 
in  various  parts  of  the  world,  and  doubtless  this 
knowledge  gave  a  color  to  the  erroneous  notion 
respecting  those  who  are  sent  out  with  instruc- 
tions to  " avoid  mixing  in  native  politics,"  and 
who  endeavor  conscientiously  to  carry  out  such  a 
wise  provision.  Now  that  my  imprisonment  is 
over,  I  believe  that  my  being  a  Protestant,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  London  Missionary  Society,  and  having 
the  confidence  of  the  British  subjects  in  Tama- 
tave  as  well  as  of  the  Hovas,  were  the  real  causes 
of  my  detention,  wThile  the  charges  were  invented 
to  give  a  plausible  excuse  for  the  high-handed 
action  of  the  French  officers. 

Two  or  three  days  after  I  had  been  placed  on 
board  the  "Nievre,"  Andrianisa,  the  consular 


BOMBARDMENT  OF  TAMATAVE.  24I 

secretary,  was  brought  and  treated  in  the  same 
way  as  myself.  When  we  were  transferred  to  the 
1 1  Flore ' '  we  were  placed  together  in  one  cabin 
for  the  first  evening,  so  that  we  could  converse. 
He  told  me  he  had  done  nothing,  and  was  ac- 
cused of  nothing  except  of  being  a  Hova.  Now 
this,  I  believe,  every  one  in  Tainatave  knows  to  be 
untrue;  and  it  is  strange  if  Mr.  Raffray,  who 
caused  his  arrest,  was  not  perfectly  cognizant  of 
the  fact  that  Andrianisa  was  a  British  subject, 
although  of  Hova  parentage  on  his  father's  side. 
He  was  born  in  Mauritius;  his  mother  was  a 
Creole  of  that  place,  and  he  remained  in  that 
island  till  after  he  had  reached  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  years.  He  had  always  represented  himself 
as  a  British  subject  long  before  these  troubles 
came  upon  Tainatave.  Mr.  Pakenham  declared 
to  the  officers  sent  to  arrest  his  secretary  in  his 
presence  that  Andrianisa  was  a  British  subject. 
But  the  commander  of  the  fort  was  not  willing  to 
accept  this  verbal  statement,  and  demanded  a 
written  certificate  from  Mr.  Pakenham,  which 
the  latter  did  not  feel  called  upon  to  give  at  the 
bidding  of  a  French  official.  After  being  kept 
in  confinement  some  weeks,  Andrianisa  was  re- 
leased* without  being  tried  or  examined  in  any 

*  In  a  communication  made  by  M.  Waddington  to  Lord  Gran- 
ville, August  13,  he  asserted  that  Andrianisa  "  was  immediately 


242  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

way  whatever:  a  clear  admission  on  the  part  of 
the  French  authorities  that  they  had  no  grounds 
on  which  to  detain  him,  while  his  family  was  in 
a  destitute  condition  on  shore.  This  was  after  the 
death  of  H.  B.  M.'s  consul. 

The  admiral,  in  a  note  to  one  of  the  Bourbon 
papers,  denies  any  knowledge  of  these  facts,  and 
also  that  any  indignity  was  offered  to  H.  B.  M.'s 
consul.  But  the  above  are  the  simple  facts  of 
the  one  case;  and  with  regard  to  the  other,  I 
heard  from  a  credible  witness  who  was  present 
that  our  consul  was  ordered  to  leave  the  shore 
within  twenty-four  hours  from  the  time  of  notice, 
notwithstanding  that  information  was  given  of 
his  serious  illness.  Had  he  not  died  meanwhile, 
there  is  no  doubt  he  would  have  been  removed, 
and  this  was  to  be  done  because  he  was  said  to 
be  holding  communication  with  the  enemy;  a 
proceeding  which  in  the  face  of  the  strong  cor- 
don of  sentries  placed  round  Tamatave,  and  of 
the  fact  that  Mr.  Pakenham  had  not  the  confi- 
dence of  the  natives,  was  an  impossibility.  The 
charge  was  as  ridiculous  as  that  made  against 
Captain  Johnstone,  that  he  signalled  to  the  na- 
tives by  night.  Admiral  Pierre's  credulity  went 
a  long  way  if  he  really  believed  that  the  "  nation 

released,"  and  "that  the  French  forces  had  shown  all  the  con- 
sideration the  circumstances  allowed  of." 


BOMBARDMENT  OF  TAMATAVE.  243 

altogether  barbarous"  had  studied  and  learned 
the  naval  code  of  signals.  But  even  this  charge 
was  sufficient,  in  the  hands  of  so  unscrupulous  a 
man,  to  place  Captain  Johnstone  under  the  in- 
dignity of  a  surveillance,  and  to  prevent  him 
from  holding  communication  with  the  shore. 

While  I  remained  in  a  state  of  uncertainty  on 
board  the  "Nievre,"  and  while  still  suffering 
from  the  effects  of  the  fever,  the  "Taymouth 
Castle,"  a  steamer  of  the  Cape  R.  M.  S.  Com- 
pany, from  London,  arrived  in  the  harbor,  June 
26,  having  my  wife  on  board.  So  that  I  had  the 
additional  pain  of  seeing  the  vessel  in,  and  yet 
not  being  able  to  meet  my  wife,  who  had  left 
Tamatave  two  years  previously  in  ill  health  to 
seek  change  and  medical  advice  in  England.  I 
knew  too  with  what  a  terrible  shock  the  news  of 
my  imprisonment  would  come  upon  her  just  at 
the  time  she  was  expecting  to  meet  me.  As  I 
was  not  allowed  to  hold  any  communication  with 
the  shore  I  could  discover  nothing  of  her  move- 
ments nor  how  she  was  bearing  it,  and  when  the 
vessel  left  again  I  was  in  perfect  ignorance  as  to 
whether  she  remained  on  shore  or  had  left  again 
for  Mauritius.  After  the  vessel  had  left  letters 
were  given  me,  written  by  my  wife  for  me,  but 
read  and  kept  by  the  French  officers  until  after 
she  had  gone,  so  that  I  had  to  bear  the  misery  of 


244  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

learning  that  as  the  "Taymouth  Castle"  steamed 
out  close  to  the  "Nievre"  she  was  on  board  with- 
out my  knowing  it  or  making  any  effort  to  get  a 
distant  glimpse  of  her. 

Since  being  set  at  liberty  I  have  heard  from 
her  how  harshly  she  was  treated.  She  first  went 
in  a  boat  to  the  beach,  but  was  not  allowed  to 
land,  to  ask  the  officer  at  the  custom-house  if  she 
might  not  be  allowed  to  see  me.  The  officer  told 
her  he  could  not  give  her  permission,  but  she 
might  apply  to  the  admiral.  Accordingly  she 
went  with  the  second  officer  of  the  uTaymouth 
Castle ' '  to  the  1 1  Flore. ' '  She  was  received  on 
board  by  the  admiral's  secretary,  and  informed 
him  of  her  wish  to  see  the  admiral.  This  was 
denied  her,  and  she  was  told  that  if  she  had  any- 
thing to  communicate  she  must  do  it  through  the 
secretary.  She  accordingly  asked  permission  to 
do  one  of  three  things:  to  come  on  board  the 
" Nievre"  for  a  short  time  to  see  me;  to  come 
and  share  my  imprisonment;  or  to  land,  so  as  to 
be  nearer  to  me  than  if  she  went  to  Mauritius. 
Each  request  as  it  was  made  was  denied  her,  and, 
comfortless  and  thoroughly  cast  down,  she  had  to 
leave  the  "Flore"  without  any  prospect  of  see- 
ing me,  and  without  the  least  idea  of  what  I  stood 
accused.  In  passing  the  "Nievre"  to  go  to  the 
"Flore,"  she  had  been  seen  and  recognized  by 


BOMBARDMENT  OF  TAMATAVE.  245 

Andrianisa,  who  was  on  deck,  and  he  told  the 
officers  who  she  was.  Hence  means  were  taken 
to  prevent  my  appearing  on  deck  until  she  had 
repassed ;  and  when  on  their  return  the  boat  had 
waited  at  a  little  distance  from  the  "Nievre," 
and  the  captain  was  asked  if  Mrs.  Shaw  might 
not  see  me  even  from  that  distance,  they  were 
ordered  off  and  told  not  to  stay  near  the  ship  un- 
less they  had  received  permission  for  my  wife  to 
come  on  board.  The  secretary  of  the  " Flore' 1 
told  my  wife  that  I  was  only  confined  to  prevent 
my  communication  with  the  shore,  and  that  I  was 
well  treated — both  of  which  statements  were  de- 
void of  the  least  shadow  of  truth.  But  when  my 
wife's  letters  were  given  me,  and  I  saw  the  above 
stated  as  the  cause  of  my  imprisonment,  I  wrote 
to  the  commander  of  the  fort  offering  to  go  to 
Mauritius,  binding  myself  not  to  communicate 
with  Tamatave.  This  letter  was  afterwards  used 
against  me,  as  my  accusers  affected  to  believe  that 
I  was  guilty,  and  therefore  desired  to  escape. 

My  European  letters  by  the  mail  were  detained 
until  read  and  examined  by  the  French  officers; 
and  after  the  return  mail  had  left  only  such  as 
wrere  considered  not  dangerous  were  given  me. 
Letters  from  England  addressed  to  my  wife  were 
also  opened  and  read.  Even  one  on  Her  Majes- 
ty's service,  sealed  with  the  official  seal  of  the 


246  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

Colonial  Postmaster  General  in  Mauritius,  was 
not  respected. 

After  being  confined  for  seventeen  days  an 
officer  came  on  board  and  I  was  ordered  into  the 
captain's  cabin  to  be  examined  for  the  first  time. 
I  then  found  that  the  charge  brought  against  me 
was  totally  different  from  that  made  by  the  com- 
mander of  the  fort  when  he  first  arrested  me;  and 
I  was  told  that  I  stood  accused  of  having  scattered 
about  in  the  vicinity  of  my  house  a  number  of 
bottles  of  wine  and  other  liquids,  which  I  had 
poisoned  with  the  intention  of  destroying  the 
French  picket  that  I  knew  was  to  be  placed  in 
my  house.  I  not  only  indignantly  denied  this, 
but  also  showed  how,  by  the  Europeans  who  were 
with  me  at  Mr.  Aitken's  as  witnesses,  I  could 
prove  that  neither  I  nor  my  servants  could  have 
left  the  town  to  go  to  my  house  during  the  night 
of  Wednesday  to  Thursday.  A  constant  watch 
had  been  kept  throughout  the  night,  and  hence 
it  was  impossible  that  any  one  could  have  left 
the  house  unobserved.  After  about  half-an-hour's 
examination  the  officer  left,  and  I  heard  no  more 
of  my  case  for  some  days.  I  was  then  ordered  to 
pack  up  what  few  clothes  I  had  been  allowed  to 
receive  from  shore,  and  prepare  to  go  on  board 
the  "  Flore." 

There  my  imprisonment  was  made  much  more 


BOMBARDMENT  OF  TAMATAVE.  247 


harsh  and  the  regulations  far  more  stringent. 
Everything  seemed  to  be  done  to  make  me  feel 
that  my  confinement  was  no  pleasant  situation. 
I  was  placed  in  a  small  cabin  on  the  lower  or 
third  deck,  and  told  to  remain  in  it.  I  was  not 
to  leave  it  except  for  an  hour  a  day,  when  I 
might  walk  on  the  upper  deck  between  the  gal- 
ley and  the  gangway,  but  not  beyond  either;  my 
cabin  was  to  be  kept  constantly  closed,  an  armed 
sentry  to  keep  guard  over  me  day  and  night,  and 
I  was  not  allowed  to  speak  to  any  one  except  the 
sentry  who  brought  my  rations.  Books  were  de- 
nied me,  and  my  cabin,  lighted  by  a  very  small 
port,  was  so  dismal  that  I  could  not  see  to  do 
anything  after  about  two  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon. 

In  this  state  of  misery  and  suspense  I  was  kept 
for  another  nineteen  days,  hearing  nothing  of  the 
result  of  my  examination.  Meanwhile  I  had 
written  to  the  commander  of  the  fort,  under  the 
impression  that  I  was  detained  simply,  as  the  ad- 
miral informed  my  wife,  to  prevent  my  commu- 
nicating with  the  shore,  in  which  I  offered  to  go 
to  Mauritius,  and  find  any  security  they  were  will- 
ing to  accept;  that  I  would  abstain  from  commu- 
nicating with  Tamatave.  Getting  no  answer,  I 
then  wrote  to  the  admiral  in  the  same  terms.  To 
this  he  returned  a  verbal  answer,  saying  that "  the 

Madagascar  and  Prance.  t  c 


248  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

affair  was  not  in  his  hands,  but  in  those  of  the  of- 
ficers on  shore;  that  it  would  eventually  come  up 
for  his  decision,  but  not  till  those  who  had  charge 
of  the  case  had  each  given  in  their  report. "  I 
wrote  to  Captain  Johnstone  also,  asking  him  to 
make  in  my  name  the  same  offer  to  the  admiral. 
As  all  letters  were  thoroughly  examined,  this  was 
detained  and  never  reached  him. 

After  twenty-two  days  from  my  first  examina- 
tion another  officer  sent  an  order  for  me  to  go  into 
his  cabin  and  submit  to  another  examination.  He 
told  me  he  had  been  appointed  reporter,  and  was 
allowed  not  only  to  examine  me,  but  also  to  ques- 
tion on  oath  any  persons  I  might  wish  to  call  as 
witnesses.  In  presence  of  this  officer  and  a  police 
constable  I  was  once  more  asked  a  great  number 
of  questions,  which  were,  with  their  answers, 
written.  Again  I  was  asked  if  I  knew  for  what 
I  was  imprisoned.  "Yes,"  I  said;  "I  was  told 
first  I  was  imprisoned  for  harboring  spies,  and 
afterwards  for  trying  to  poison  the  French  troops." 
"No!  no!"  said  the  officer;  "you  are  impris- 
oned because  you  have  been  imprudent!"  As  I 
smiled,  partly  in  incredulity  at  such  a  charge 
being  brought  against  me  after  six  weeks'  impris- 
onment, he  went  on  at  my  request  to  explain. 
"Well,"  he  said,  "after  knowing  that  your  cel- 
lar and  dispensary  were  broken  into  and  pillaged, 


BOMBARDMENT  OF  TAMATAVE.  249 

you  ought  to  have  been  more  careful  to  have  in- 
formed the  officers  and  marines  that  there  might 
be  poisons  lying  about. ' '  I  explained  that  after 
the  watch  we  kept  the  night  previously,  another 
European  and  I  went  together  into  my  house  on 
the  Thursday  morning,  before  any  one  else,  and 
finding  some  bottles  lying  about  the  garden,  we 
collected  all  we  could  find  whole,  and  sent  them 
into  the  town  with  other  things.  And  at  this 
work  we  were  engaged  when  the  picket  arrived. 
I  also  explained  that  I  had  informed  the  officer  in 
charge  of  the  picket  that  the  cellar  and  dispensary 
had  been  broken  open.  I  also  asked  that,  if  any 
goods  of  mine  were  found  by  the  soldiers,  they 
would  inform  me,  in  order  that  I  might  at  once 
have  them  removed.  And  I  concluded  that,  hav- 
ing given  this  notice,  the  remainder  of  the  cau- 
tioning was  the  officer's  duty,  and  that  I  never 
expected  French  sailors  would  pick  up  any  bottle 
they  might  find  lying  about  and  drink  from  it. 

It  was  affirmed  against  me  that  some  bottles, 
and  among  them  a  bottle  of  laudanum,  were 
found  in  the  brushwood  outside  my  garden,  but 
near  to  it.  But  although  I  was  there  all  day  en- 
gaged in  saving  some  of  my  property,  I  was  not 
informed  of  the  discovery  of  those  bottles,  and 
they  were  officially  broken  and  a  report  of  the 
same  sent  to  the  commander  of  the  fort.    It  was 


250  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

asserted  in  my  examination  that  the  sudden  ill- 
ness of  one  of  the  drunken  soldiers  had  been 
ascribed  on  good  authority  1 '  to  the  effects  of  opi- 
um;" and  on  the  strength  of  this  had  been  found- 
ed the  charge  of  poisoning,  which  was  found  to 
be  just  as  groundless  as  the  first — that  I  was  hold- 
ing communication  with  the  Hovas.  That  I  sym- 
pathized with  them  most  heartily  goes  without 
saying;  but  that  I  overstepped  the  bounds  of  neu- 
trality by  a  hair's  breadth  is  without  founda- 
tion. 

After  another  eleven  days  in  this  small,  dark, 
rat-infested  cabin,  treated  worse  than  a  condemned 
felon  in  England,  I  was  told  that,  having  been 
examined  by  the  reporter,  my  case  had  still  to  go 
through  the  hands  of  two  other  officers,  who  might 
be  an  indefinite  time  before  rendering  their  re- 
ports to  the  admiral.  That  not  till  then  could 
the  latter  decide  whether  it  was  necessary  I  should 
be  brought  before  a  court-martial.  Hence  I  might 
remain  on  board  another  six  months  without  be- 
ing brought  to  trial.  But  I  was  told  that,  as 
neither  of  the  subsequent  examiners  could  exam- 
ine me  personally,  I  might,  with  a  fair  hope  of 
success,  write  to  the  admiral,  offering  to  go  to 
Mauritius  on  parole ;  in  other  words,  if  I  would 
give  my  word  of  honor  to  return  for  the  court- 
martial  when  the  admiral  sent  for  me.    I  only 


BOMBARDMENT  OF  TAMATAVE.  251 

too  gladly  complied;  but  I  found  this  was  a  mere 
ruse,  for  the  admiral  was  not  on  board  at  the  time; 
he  had  gone  to  Bourbon,  and  the  letter  was  only 
to  be  a  means  of  making  me,  if  possible,  crimi- 
nate myself.  I  was  asked  to  write  that  ' c  appear- 
ances were  against  me ' '  when  I  was  arrested ; 
but  this  I  declined  to  do,  though  at  last,  as  time 
wore  on,  I  made  a  compromise  by  substituting, 
"although  some  circumstances  of  the  case  make 
appearances  to  be  against  me,  I  wish  again  most 
emphatically  and  solemnly  as  in  the  presence  of 
God  to  affirm  my  entire  innocence, "  etc.  I  re- 
ferred to  the  fact  that  the  bottles  were  found  in 
the  garden  on  the  particular  morning  that  the 
picket  arrived. 

Having  been  kept  for  eight  weeks  in  total 
ignorance  of  what  was  transpiring  in  the  outer 
world,  not  knowing  how  my  wife  was  bearing 
the  hard  trial,  and  having  been  informed  by  my 
examiner  that  I  might  remain  in  prison  six  months 
longer  before  the  court-martial,  and  that  then  I 
should  only  be  allowed  to  have  a  French  counsel, 
it  was  no  wonder  that  under  pressure  and  in  my 
weak  state  of  health  I  was  willing  to  yield  against 
my  judgment  and  write  the  above.  Not  only 
was  pressure  used,  but  I  was  induced  to  write  by 
false  pretences,  inasmuch  as  the  admiral  was  not 
able  to  be  communicated  with,  but  had  left  in  the 


252  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

u  Forfait"  a  fortnight  before  I  supposed  I  was 
addressing  him  on  board. 

On  August  6  I  was  told  that,  although  the 
admiral  had  not  answered,  which  he  would  not 
do  till  the  last  minute,  yet  it  was  quite  certain  I 
should  be  allowed  to  go  in  the  way  I  asked.  Ac- 
cordingly arrangements  were  made  for  my  passage 
by  the  "Nievre"  to  Bourbon.  On  the  follow- 
ing evening,  about  8  o'clock,  a  form  filled  up  was 
brought  to  me,  stating  that,  as  there  was  not  suf- 
ficient evidence  to  warrant  my  being  brought 
before  a  court-martial,  considering  my  nationality 
and  other  circumstances  outside  the  case,  I  was 
set  at  liberty.  I  especially  inquired  if  this  bore 
reference  to  my  offer  on  parole  d^honneur,  and  I 
was  answered  No!  that  I  was  altogether  free; 
and  my  servants,  who  had  also  been  confined  on 
the  14  Flore,"  were  free  also,  if  any  European  on 
shore  would  offer  security  for  them. 

In  Mauritius,  Sir  John  Pope  Hennessey  and 
Admiral  Sir  William  Hewett  had  heard  with 
some  considerable  concern  of  the  high-handed 
action  of  the  French  at  Tamatave  and  other  pla- 
ces on  the  east  and  north  coasts  of  Madagascar. 
The  former  not  only  felt  it  necessary  to  send  over 
the  "Stella"  with  instructions  to  take  over  to 
the  colony  all  British  subjects  who  might  wish  to 
leave  the  island,  but  he  also  sent  letters  to  the 


BOMBARDMENT  OF  TAMATAVE.  253 

admiral  making  inquiry  regarding  my  imprison- 
ment; to  which  the  admiral  replied  very  cour- 
teously, although  he  had  refused  to  hold  any 
communication  with  Captain  Johnstone  on  the 
matter.  When  the  English  captain  protested 
against  the  action  of  the  admiral,  he  was  told  that 
a  protest  coming  from  a  man  of  his  rank  rendered 
it  unfit  that  any  further  communications  should 
be  held  with  him,  and  he  was  also  prevented  from 
landing  at  Tamatave  after  he  had  returned  from 
the  funeral  of  Consul  Pakenham.  It  is  quite  evi- 
dent that  a  1 1  grave  and  painful  occurrence, ' ' 
leading  the  two  nations  to  the  verge  of  war,  was 
bridged  over  by  the  repudiation  by  France  of  her 
representative's  action  in  the  harbor  of  Tamatave. 
Admiral  Pierre  was  recalled,  and  his  death  at 
Marseilles  materially  helped  the  two  Governments 
to  come  to  an  understanding.  It  was,  however, 
quite  evident,  from  the  despatches  of  the  French 
Minister,  that  the  Government  in  Paris  did  not 
in  the  least  sanction  the  outrageous  acts  of  their 
admiral.  In  fact,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
the  latter  anticipated  such  a  feeling  when  in  his 
telegrams  home  he  utterly  ignored  those  matters 
which  we  look  upon  as  serious;  for  on  the  appli- 
cation for  information  on  the  part  of  Lord  Gran- 
ville, M.  Challemel-L,acour  says,  on  July  13, 
"A  very  short  telegram  informs  us  that  Admiral 


254  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

Pierre  repulsed  two  general  night  attacks  on  the 
26th  June  and  the  5th  July.  No  mention  is  made 
therein  of  any  difficulties  between  the  admiral 
and  the  British  commander  and  consul."  And 
again,  having  called  upon  Iyord  Lyons,  he  said 
"  he  was  at  a  loss  to  account  for  the  admiral's  not 
having  made  any  allusion  to  them  (the  difficul- 
ties with  the  British  authorities). "  He  stated 
further  that  "he  had  sent  telegrams  to  Zanzibar 
and  Aden,  directing  that  instructions  should  be 
forwarded  by  the  quickest  means  to  the  admiral 
to  send  full  particulars  at  once."  The  same 
statement  in  effect  was  made  in  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  by  M.  Challemel-Lacour  in  reply  to  a 
question  relating  to  the  subject  of  the  admiral's 
actions,  which  had  so  astonished  him  in  a  man 
whose  "prudence  equalled  his  determination." 

But  when  the  French  were  put  in  possession 
of  all  the  facts,  their  expression  of  regret  to  the 
British  Government  was  spontaneous,  and  showed 
that  the  French  Ministry  were  anxious  to  act 
consistently  "with  the  friendly  feeling  and  the 
good  disposition  existing  between  the  two  Gov- 
ernments," regarding  the  conduct  of  their  ad- 
miral towards  both  H.  B.  M.'s  consul,  Captain 
Johnstone,  and  myself. 


ACCESSION  OF  RANAVALONA  III.  255 


CHAPTER  XI. 

ACCESSION  OF  RANAVALONA  III. 

Events  at  Antananarivo.  Committee  of  Safety.  Letter  to  Lord 
Granville.  Missionaries  Leaving  the  Country.  Mails  In- 
terrupted. Death  of  Ranavalona  II.  Coronation  of  Rana- 
valona  III.  Her  Character.  Vice-consul  for  Antananarivo. 
Consular  Agents  along  the  Coast.  Queen's  Message  to  her 
Subjects  in  view  of  French  Advance.  Bombardments  on  the 
East  Coast.    Position  at  Tamatave.    Native  Determination. 

Meanwhile  events  of  importance  had  been 
transpiring  in  the  capital.  Although  the  depar- 
ture of  all  French  subjects,  according  to  the  de- 
cree of  the  queen,  and  the  statement  of  the  Prime 
Minister  to  the  people  that  all  foreigners  who  re- 
mained were  friends,  relieved  the  British,  Nor- 
wegian, and  American  subjects  of  any  immediate 
cause  for  fear,  yet  they  felt  their  position  to  be 
one  of  considerable  peril.  No  actual  and  imme- 
diate danger  was  to  be  apprehended  from  the 
people;  but  what  if  the  French  should  carry  out 
their  threat  and  march  into  the  interior?  Vari- 
ous complications  would  soon  arise.  The  natives 
openly  spoke  of  destroying  the  town  by  fire  in 
such  a  case;  and  this  would  involve  the  departure 
of  all  inhabitants,  foreigners  as  well  as  natives. 


25^  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

No  representative  of  Her  Majesty's  Government 
resided  at  Antananarivo,  either  to  advise  the 
Government  or  protect  the  interests  of  British 
subjects.  Added  to  this,  all  communication  being 
cut  off  by  the  bombardment  of  Tamatave,  no 
mails  were  delivered,  and  nothing  but  flying 
reports  of  the  course  of  events  reached  the  anx- 
ious white  population  in  the  capital. 

As  a  self-protective  measure,  a  committee  of 
the  foreign  residents  was  formed  shortly  after  the 
news  of  the  bombardment  of  Anorontsanga  reached 
headquarters.  This  committee,  with  Bishop  Cor- 
nish as  its  chairman,  undertook  to  supply  H.  B. 
M.'s  consul  at  Tamatave  with  information  respect- 
ing events  in  the  capital  so  long  as  the  road  was 
open,  and  also  to  become  the  means  of  communi- 
cation with  Her  Majesty's  Government,  seeking 
advice  and  representing  the  trying  position  in 
which  they  might  be  placed.  One  principle  al- 
ways acted  upon  by  the  missionaries,  especially 
those  of  the  London  Missionary  Society,  has  been 
to  keep  clear  of  native  politics.  The  wisdom  of 
this  course  of  action  has  again  and  again  exhib- 
ited itself,  more  especially  since  the  time  the  queen 
embraced  the  Christian  religion  and  joined  her- 
self in  church  fellowship  to  one  of  the  churches 
under  the  guidance  of  the  London  Missionary 
Society.    Doubtless  the  action  of  the  Govern- 


GUARDS  AT  ENTRANCE  OF  THE  QUEEN'S  PALACE. 


ACCESSION  OF  RAN  A  V  A  1,0  N  A  III.  259 

ment  may  at  times  have  been  influenced  by  the 
missionaries,  but  this  has  been  an  indirect  influ- 
ence— a  teaching  of  right  motives  and  righteous 
principles,  which  have  evidenced  themselves  in 
the  course  pursued  by  those  in  authority.  It  is 
also  true  that  as  teachers  the  missionaries  have 
expounded  the  principles  of  political  economy 
and  inculcated  the  wish  for  just  and  equitable 
laws,  have  condemned  wholesale  capital  punish- 
ment, and  shown  the  duty  of  a  civilized  govern- 
ment to  its  subjects.  But  this  is  not  u  interfering 
in  native  politics;"  it  is  a  course  adopted,  and 
rightly  so  too,  by  every  newspaper  towards  its 
own  Government.  And  the  teaching  has  been 
seen  by  the  people  to  have  been  given  with  no 
personal  motives,  but  only  from  the  philanthrop- 
ic desire  to  see  righteousness  and  peace,  love 
and  purity,  advancing  in  the  country.  Hence 
they  have  accepted  it  and  acted  up  to  it  as  far  as 
they  have  been  capable,  probably  rejecting  ad- 
vice which  has  been  tendered  from  other  quar- 
ters, not  so  clearly  disinterested. 

In  communicating  with  L,ord  Granville  on 
August  17,  1883,  the  committee  represent  their 
position  as  one  causing  little  anxiety  from  the 
natives,  "so  long  as  the  present  Government  re- 
tains its  power,  since  even  the  Jesuit  priests  and 
other  French  subjects  were  safely  escorted  to  the 


260  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

coast  after  the  outbreak  of  hostilities,  and  at  this 
date,  eleven  weeks  afterwards,  their  property  in 
the  capital  is  as  safe  as  when  they  left."  They, 
however,  were  feeling  the  inconvenience  of  the 
stoppage  of  all  communications,  and  were  appre- 
hensive of  the  failure  of  supplies  of  provisions 
and  money.  Some  of  their  number  too,  having 
broken  down  in  health,  were,  independently  of 
the  unsettled  state  of  the  country,  anxious  to 
leave;  but  they  were  uncertain  whether  any  port 
would  be  open  to  them,  and  whether  after  travel- 
ling to  the  coast  they  might  not  have  to  return. 
Besides,  for  reasons  just  mentioned,  it  might  be 
out  of  their  power  in  a  few  months  to  pay  the 
necessary  expenses  of  the  journey  to  the  coast. 
Alarm  was  also  felt  at  the  high-handed  action  of 
the  French  authorities  in  Tamatave  in  forbidding 
officers  of  Her  Majesty's  ships  to  land,  in  arrest- 
ing and  imprisoning  British  subjects  in  the  pres- 
ence of  British  men-of-war,  while  the  captains  of 
those  vessels  were  kept  in  total  ignorance  of  the 
charges  under  which  they  were  arrested.  It  was 
natural  that  they  should  ask  themselves  what 
might  not  happen  in  the  capital,  where  there  is 
not  a  single  representative  of  the  British  or  any 
other  foreign  Government,  should  the  French 
eventually  reach  the  interior  ? 

The  committee,  therefore,  memorialised  the 


ACCESSION  OF  RANAVALONA  III.  261 

Foreign  Secretary,  begging  his  lordship  (1)  to 
take  steps  for  keeping  open  communication,  so 
that  they  might  get  their  mails,  stores,  and  specie, 
through  some  port  on  the  east  coast;  (2)  to  send  a 
British  ship  to  some  port  also  on  the  east  coast  by 
which  such  of  their  number  as  wished  to  leave 
the  island  might  do  so  in  safety ;  and  (3)  to  send  a 
representative  of  the  British  Government,  with  as 
little  delay  as  possible,  to  reside  at  Antananarivo. 

Before  the  arrival  of  this  memorial  in  London 
many  of  the  requests  made  in  it  had  been  antici- 
pated. The  acting  Foreign  Secretary  of  the  Lon- 
don Missionary  Society  had  written  on  July  31  to 
Lord  Granville,  informing  him  of  the  receipt  of 
news  from  Tamatave  to  the  effect  that  the  party 
who  left  England  in  the  May  previously  had  not 
been  allowed  to  land,  that  other  missionaries  who 
were  to  have  embarked  there  in  the  same  vessel 
had  been  prevented  by  the  unsettled  state  of  the 
country  from  reaching  Tamatave.  It  was  also  in- 
timated that  they  were  reported  to  have  reached 
Ivondrona,  where  any  lengthened  residence  would 
seriously  impair  their  health;  and,  therefore,  his 
lordship  was  asked  if  steps  could  not  be  taken  by 
the  British  authorities  at  Tamatave  to  communi- 
cate with  them  and  procure  for  them  a  safe  con- 
duct to  the  port,  with  a  view  to  their  embarking 
there  en  route  for  Mauritius  and  England. 


262  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

Instructions  were  accordingly  sent  to  Captain 
Johnstone,  of  the  "Dryad,"  to  use  his  best  en- 
deavors to  relieve  the  party  from  their  unpleasant 
position;  and  the  French  Minister  telegraphed  to 
Zanzibar  instructions  to  the  military  authorities, 
"directing  them  to  take  the  necessary  steps  to 
facilitate,  under  the  circumstances  indicated  by 
the  British  Government,  the  departure  from  Mad- 
agascar of  the  English  missionaries."* 

Nevertheless,  quite  half  the  party  returned  to 
the  capital,  being,  of  course,  in  total  ignorance  of 
what  was  passing  in  the  outside  world,  and  only 
realising  their  inability  to  reach  Tamatave.  The 
Rev.  G.  Cousins  has  graphically  described  the 
troubles,  difficulties,  and  dangers  of  their  journey 
from  the  capital  to  Ivondrona,  and  the  attempt 
made  by  two  of  their  number  to  reach  Tamatave 
on  foot.  He  speaks  of  the  subsequent  division  of 
the  party,  one  half  deciding  to  return  to  Antana- 
narivo, while  the  other,  including  himself,  elect- 
ed to  make  the  long,  tedious  canoe  journey  along 
the  lagoons  to  a  port  in  the  south.  On  this  jour- 
ney, occupying  many  days  under  a  scorching  sun 
in  an  unhealthy  climate,  some  of  their  number 
were  repeatedly  attacked  with  fever,  and  in  con- 
stant dread  lest,  after  all  the  weariness,  pain,  and 

*  Correspondence  respecting  affairs  in  Madagascar,  No.  1, 
1884,  p.  43. 


ACCESSION  OF  RANAVALONA  III.  263 

privation,  they  might  be  disappointed  on  arrival 
to  find  the  ports  bombarded  and  no  vessels  allowed 
to  embark  them.  However,  on  reaching  Manan- 
jara  they  felt  themselves  fortunate  in  securing  a 
passage  in  a  small  schooner  bound  for  Mauritius, 
notwithstanding  the  inconveniences  they  were 
compelled  to  put  up  with  on  board.  ^ 

Mails  which  had  lain  for  months  at  Tamatave 
wrere  sent  to  a  port  in  the  south  and  messengers 
were  despatched  with  them  to  the  capital,  so  that 
after  nearly  six  months'  silence  the  Europeans 
shut  up  in  the  interior  obtained  news  of  what  was 
passing  in  the  outer  world. 

Soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  warlike 
operations  an  event  occurred  in  the  capital  which 
had  been  anticipated  not  only  with  sorrow,  but 
with  a  considerable  amount  of  dread,  on  the  part 
of  the  foreign  residents.  As  long  as  the  existing 
Government  was  in  power  all  was  felt  to  be  well, 
so  far  as  personal  security  was  concerned.  But 
what  if  the  Government  should  be  changed? 
The  queen  was  known  to  be  in  delicate  health, 
and  the  question  was  frequently  asked,  "What 
will  be  the  effect  on  the  people  should  she  die? 
Would  it  cause,  as  in  previous  cases,  a  revolution 
and  a  civil  war?"  Again  and  again  reports 
reached  Tamatave  from  the  interior  that  the 
queen  was  seriously  ill,  and  occasionally  it  was 


264  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

reported  that  she  was  dead,  but  that  the  death, 
for  political  reasons,  was  kept  quiet.  These, 
however,  proved  to  have  been  false  reports,  and 
were  probably  circulated  to  ascertain  the  effect  of 
such  an  occurrence  upon  the  coast  tribes. 

But  on  July  13, 1883,  the  sad  event  took  place, 
after  two  months'  serious  illness,  borne  with  all 
the  fortitude  of  the  true  Christian,  and  exhibiting 
to  the  last  her  firm  trust  on  the  Rock  of  her  sal- 
vation. A  native  who  was  with  her  till  the  last 
says  that  "  in  the  near  approach  of  death  she  pos- 
sessed a  sound  mind,  and  remembered  the  Lord 
her  God.  She  lost  not  her  confidence  in  the  fear- 
ful hour;  in  the  thick  darkness  she  saw  the  great 
light,  and  found  life  in  the  hour  of  death."  Early 
in  the  morning,  about  2  A.  m.,  a  severe  shock  of 
an  earthquake  shook  the  city,  which  being  af- 
terwards remembered  by  the  people  seemed  to 
strangely  bear  out  their  belief  that  some  such 
convulsion  of  nature  or  some  extraordinary  phe- 
nomenon occurs  immediately  before  the  death  of 
the  sovereign.  At  half- past  seven  the  same 
morning  the  queen  quietly  passed  away,  after  a 
successful,  merciful,  and  beneficent  reign  of  fifteen 
years.  "The  sad  event  was  announced  about 
mid-day  by  a  sudden  and  heavy  firing  of  cannon, 
when  the  large  weekly  market,  which  was  being 
held  at  the  time,  fell  into  a  state  of  disorder  in  a 


ACCESSION  OF  RAX  A  V  A  LO  X  A  III.  267 

moment,  and  crowds  upon  crowds  of  people — the 
men  with  their  hats  off,  and  the  women  in  the 
act  of  dishevelling  their  hair — rushed  to  the  pal- 
ace to  hear  the  Prime  Minister  announce  the  sad 
tidings  and  proclaim  the  appointment  of  her  suc- 
cessor, Rauavalona  III."* 

Three  days  afterwards  the  body  was  removed 
from  the  palace  in  Antananarivo  and  taken  to 
the  ancient  capital  and  one  of  the  sacred  towns  of 
the  Hovas,  into  which  no  European  is  allowed  to 
enter,  about  twelve  miles  to  the  north.  The 
funeral  procession  was  attended  by  crowds  of  the 
people,  who  truly  lamented  the  death  of  the  gent- 
lest of  Malagasy  women  and  the  most  gracious 
of  queens.  On  the  following  day  at  midnight 
the  remains  were  deposited  in  the  grave  of  Rana- 
valona  I. ,  of  notorious  memory  on  account  of  the 
persecution  of  the  Christians.  "  She  was  buried 
in  the  same  grave,"  says  the  Rev.  R.  Baron, 
"not  because  of  any  special  desire  having  been 
expressed  by  the  queen  to  that  effect,  but  rather 
because  of  a  dream  which  she  had  had  some  time 
before  her  death  that  they  were  both  sleeping  in 
the  same  bed.  And  so  it  comes  about  that  Rana- 
valona  I.,  the  great  persecutor  of  Christians,  and 
Ranavalona  II.,  the  devout  believer  in  the  gos- 
pel, lie  together  in  one  sepulchre. ' ' 

*  "Antananarivo  Annual,"  iSS^,  p.  8. 
16 


268  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

A  thousand  bullocks,  according  to  the  Mala- 
gasy custom,  were  killed  at  the  funeral,  and  the 
beef  was  eaten  by  the  mourners.  But  with  this 
exception  the  customs  observed  at  the  death  of  a 
queen  were  ignored.  This  was  doubtless  owing 
to  a  growing  sense  of  the  inutility  of  such  obser- 
vances, to  the  disturbed  state  of  the  country  with 
reference  to  the  French  action,  and  also  to  an 
expressed  desire  of  the  queen  on  her  death-bed 
that  as  little  fuss  as  possible  should  be  made  at 
her  funeral. 

Ranavalona  II.  was  the  niece  of  the  persecu- 
ting queen  of  the  same  name,  and  cousin  of  Raso- 
herina,  her  immediate  predecessor.  She  was  born 
in  1829,  and  was  early  noted  among  her  peers  as 
a  girl  of  gentle  and  tender  nature  and  lacking  the 
haughty  exclusiveness  of  her  aunt.  Very  many 
native  accounts  are  recorded  of  her  tender-heart- 
edness, of  her  help  tendered  to  those  in  distress, 
and  of  her  endeavors  to  shield  the  Christians  from 
the  severity  of  Ranavalona  I.  She  was  educated 
in  one  of  the  London  Missionary  Society's  schools, 
from  which  she  carried  away  the  early  germs  of 
that  love  of  Christ  which  have  sprung  up  and 
borne  so  much  fruit  in  her  reign.  During  the 
persecution  it  is  known  that  she  made  several 
attempts  to  save  the  Christians;  and  native  re- 
ports say  that  she  was  herself  a  true  Christian 


ACCESSION  OF  RANAVALONA  III.  269 


long  before  she  openly  received  baptism.  She  is 
said  to  have  frequently  attended  the  devotional 
meetings  of  those  persecuted  ones  both  in  the 
capital  and  in  the  plain  below;  and  it  is  asserted 
that  she  sometimes  received  into  the  palace  those 
who  came  to  speak  with  her  upon  spiritual  mat- 
ters, notwithstanding  she  knew  that  by  so  doing 
she  was  running  great  risks.  For  although  she 
was  a  great  favorite  of  the  queen,  had  the  latter 
known  of  the  secret  meetings,  so  great  was  her 
enmity  towards  the  worshippers  that  steps  would 
have  been  taken  to  circumscribe  her  liberty,  even 
if  she  were  not  banished.  "  On  one  occasion  she 
entered  the  house  of  an  old  lady  very  early  one 
cold  morning  to  warm  herself  by  the  fire;  and  as 
she  was  dripping  with  clew,  her  aged  friend  asked 
her  where  she  had  been  such  a  night  as  that. 
'I  have  been,'  she  said,  'to  a  meeting  of  Chris- 
tians out  yonder  on  the  marsh;'  to  which  the  old 
woman  replied  with  tears  in  her  eyes,  '  The  Lord 
prosper  you  in  your  seeking  after  him  thus.'  "* 

On  April  1,  1868,  she  ascended  the  throne  on 
the  death  of  her  cousin;  and  it  speedily  became 
known  that  the  first  Christian  sovereign  ruled  in 
Madagascar,  for  the  idols  reverenced  by  her  pred- 
ecessors were  looked  upon  with  no  favor  by  her. 
The  idol-keepers  or  priests  trembled  for  their 

*  "Antananarivo  Annual,"  1883,  p.  3. 


270  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

office  and  their  power,  and  tried  to  create  a  diver- 
sion in  favor  of  the  ancient  worship.  But  a 
death-blow  was  given  to  all  their  hopes  when  on 
the  coronation  day,  September  3 — a  day  ever  to 
be  remembered  in  the  annals  of  Christianity  in 
Madagascar — it  was  found  that  in  place  of  the 
idol  a  Bible  occupied  a  prominent  position  near 
the  throne.  Round  the  four  sides  of  the  canopy 
surmounting  it,  too,  were  the  four  mottoes  print- 
ed in  large  golden  letters:  "  Glory  to  God  in  the 
highest,"  "  Peace  on  earth,"  "Good-will  towards 
men,"  uGod  be  with  us."  And  the  queen  in 
her  speech  to  the  people,  with  her  hand  on  the 
Bible,  said  that  she  rested  her  kingdom  on  God, 
for  he  had  given  it.  Declaring  herself  a  Chris- 
tian, she  trusted  her  people  might  also  be  led  to 
see  with  her;  but,  said  she,  uin  this  matter  you 
shall  not  be  compelled,  you  shall  not  be  hindered, 
for  God  made  you. ' ' 

From  that  time  the  queen  regularly  attended 
worship  in  one  of  the  churches,  and  in  October  a 
meeting,  the  first  of  its  kind,  was  held  for  wor- 
ship inside  the  palace.  In  the  following  year  the 
national  idols  of  the  Hovas  were  burned  by  the 
queen's  command,  and  she  and  the  Prime  Min- 
ister were  baptized  into  the  Christian  faith  by  the 
present  pastor  (1885)  of  the  Palace  Church,  An- 
drianbelo,  one  of  those  who  were  most  eminently 


ACCESSION  OF  RANAVALONA  III.  2JI 

faithful  and  energetic  in  keeping  alive  the  faith 
of  the  Christians  during  the  persecution.  Four 
months  afterwards  (the  usual  probation  given  to 
all  candidates  for  church  fellowship  by  the  Lon- 
don Missionary  Society  churches)  both  the  queen 
and  Prime  Minister  were  received  as  church  mem- 
bers, and  ever  afterwards  proved  their  sincerity  to 
the  profession  thus  made  by  their  consistent,  de- 
voted, and  upright  walk  and  conversation. 

According  to  a  native  writer,  who  describes 
her  conduct  and  character,  she  was  a  most  devout 
woman,  not  only  expressing  in  public  her  depend- 
ence upon  God,  but  by  her  constant  Gommunion 
with  him  showing  that  she  was  a  firm  believer  in 
the  power  and  efficacy  of  prayer.  It  is  said  that 
she  never  committed  herself  to  any  action,  even 
the  most  simple  and  commonplace,  without  first 
asking  God's  blessing :  when  she  went  out,  when 
she  came  in,  before  and  after  meals,  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  Council,  on  rising  and  on  retiring,  be- 
fore the  annual  feast  (the  Fandroand);  and  even 
during  her  last  illness  she  would  not  take  her 
medicine  before  a  blessing  had  been  asked  upon 
it.  Her  conduct  in  church,  too,  always  impressed 
me  with  its  quiet,  unostentatious  devotion;  and 
her  attention  to  the  reading  and  preaching  of 
God's  Word  was  most  marked  and  her  singing  of 
the  hymns  most  hearty. 


272  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

That  her  religion  was  a  real  thing,  and  not  a 
cloak  put  on  for  political  reasons,  is  also  proved 
by  her  actions.  Her  care  for  her  people's  good 
was  most  marked.  It  is  said  that  she  contracted 
the  small-pox  which  had  so  disfigured  her  face  by 
her  sympathy  for  the  sufferers  taking  her  into 
dangerous  proximity  to  them.  It  is  known  that 
she  distributed  large  sums  of  money  to  the  poor 
and  sick,  but  to  what  extent  is  unknown.  How- 
ever, we  know  that  regularly  every  first  Sunday 
in  the  month,  at  the  observance  of  the  commu- 
nion of  the  Lord's  Supper,  she  placed  in  the  plate 
£20  for  distribution  by  the  church  among  the 
poor;  while,  apart  from  all  other  gifts,  she  sent 
^50  or  £60  a  month  to  the  pastors  of  the  city 
churches,  to  be  used  by  them  for  helping  any  poor 
churches  in  the  villages  connected  with  them,  or 
to  assist  those  who  were  building  new  ones.  A 
school  for  the  sons  of  the  nobles  has  Ions:  been 
held  in  the  palace,  and  for  some  years  past  the 
queen  has  been  supporting  a  hospital  and  dispen- 
sary for  the  benefit  of  her  people,  although  this 
involves  the  payment  of  the  salaries  of  two  prop- 
erly qualified  doctors  from  England  and  the  pur- 
chase of  the  necessary  instruments  and  medicines. 

Her  reluctance  to  punish  was  also  a  marked 
feature  of  her  reign.  Nothing  gave  her  so  much 
pain  as  the  necessity  of  signing  the  warrant  for 


ACCESSION  OF  RAN  A V A  LON  A  III.  273 


the  death  of  a  malefactor;  and  capital  punish- 
ment has  during  the  past  ten  years  been  reduced 
to  a  minimum,  death  never  being  inflicted  but  for 
murder  and  high  treason  against  the  life  of  the 
queen.  Her  merciful  disposition  has  also  been 
shown  in  the  instructions  given  to  those  who 
have  had  to  go  as  soldiers  against  tribes  in  rebel- 
lion against  her.  The  lives  of  her  people  have 
been  held  sacred  by  her,  and  her  conduct  towards 
the  seventy  French  subjects  who  were  living  in 
the  interior  at  the  time  of  the  outbreak  of  hostili- 
ties, already  referred  to  on  page  205,  is  a  conclu- 
sive proof  of  the  high-toned  sense  of  honor  and 
justice  that  regulated  the  actions  of  this  eminently 
good  and  Christian  lady. 

Her  successor,  under  the  title  of  Ranavalona 
III.,  was  proclaimed  immediately  after  the  death 
of  her  aunt,  but  she  did  not  make  her  public  ap- 
pearance till  November  22,  when  she  came  to  her 
coronation  on  the  "Sacred  Stone"  in  the  centre 
of  the  large  plain  to  the  west  of  the  capital.  This 
plain  had  been  staked  off  into  divisions,  with 
roads  leading  in  different  directions  from  the  stone 
as  the  centre,  and  these  roads  were  kept  clear  by 
a  double  line  of  soldiers  facing  each  other  with 
their  bayonets  fixed.  The  young  men  acting  as 
Government  doctors  were  placed  at  the  corners 
marked  with  red  and  white  flags,  that  they  might 


274  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

be  easy  of  access  and  easily  discovered  in  case  of 
accident.  How  humane  solicitude  for  the  well- 
being  of  others  follows  upon  the  heels  of  a  Chris- 
tian civilization !  According  to  some  accounts 
half  a  million  of  people  assembled  soon  after  five 
o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  ceremony,  when 
cannon  from  the  height  of  the  capital  announced 
that  the  queen  would  soon  leave  the  palace. 

Representatives  from  the  various  classes  of 
foreigners  were  invited  to  meet  the  queen  be- 
tween seven  and  nine  on  the  plain  of  Andohalo, 
in  the  centre  of  the  city,  and  to  accompany  her 
down  to  the  great  plain  of  Imahamasina,  where 
all  the  others  were  invited  to  be  present.  Here, 
at  Andohalo,  was  formed  a  guard  of  400  of  the 
elder  scholars  from  the  chief  city  schools,  in  uni- 
form and  carrying  Remington  rifles  with  fixed 
bayonets.  They  were  officered  by  their  teachers, 
dressed  in  distinctive  uniforms  according  to  the 
school  from  which  they  had  come.  The  lads 
were  in  high  glee,  and  highly  appreciated  the 
honor  the  queen  was  giving  them  in  having 
them  rather  than  the  soldiers  for  her  body-guard. 

When  the  booming  of  the  cannon  announced 
the  departure  of  the  queen  from  the  palace,  these 
boys  formed  into  a  square  around  the  "  Sacred 
Stone,"  on  which  the  sovereigns  of  Madagascar 
have  first  to  step  in  proving  their  right  to  the 


RANAVALONA  III. 


ACCESSION  OF  RAXAVALOXA  III.  2J5 

crown.  Presently  down  came  two  companies  of 
soldiers  with  banners  and  bands,  the  ladies  of 
honor,  a  hundred  spearmen  in  striped  jerseys,  the 
chief  officers  in  brilliant  uniforms,  and  all  on  foot 
save  the  mounted  officers  bearing  flags.  They 
have  adopted  a  new  flag  of  scarlet  and  white  joined 
diagonally,  with  a  crown  and  R.  M.  embroidered 
on  each  side. 

The  queen,  shaded  by  two  large  scarlet  um- 
brellas and  a  small  pink  parasol,  was  in  a  very 
handsome  palanquin,  carried  by  about  twenty 
men.  She  was  dressed  in  a  white  brocaded  low 
silk  dress,  adorned  with  many  jewels  on  her  breast, 
white  kid  boots  and  gloves,  and  wore  a  large 
gold  crown,  or,  as  they  call  it,  a  hat  with  seven 
branches,  owing  to  the  crest  being  seven  spikes 
of  burnished  gold.  She  was  followed  by  a  large 
company  of  singing  women,  and  men  beating 
drums.  The  spearmen  fell  into  line,  and  as  the 
queen  approached  the  stone  the  boys  presented 
arms.  The  Prime  Minister  and  the  chief  of  the 
ambassadors  who  recently  visited  Europe  took 
the  queen  by  the  hand  and  led  her  to  the  stone, 
her  train  of  richly  embroidered  velvet  being  held 
by  four  of  the  chief  officers.  Then  came  the 
salute;  the  Prime  Minister  stepped  to  the  east, 
drew  his  jewelled  sword,  gave  the  word  of  com- 
mand, and  as  he  on  bended  knee  knelt  before 


276  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

her  the  bands  and  cannon  all  round  the  city 
saluted  Her  Majesty  as  the  only  lawful  Queen  of 
Madagascar,  while  a  deafening  shout  was  raised 
by  the  thousands  of  people  collected  on  the  plain. 

The  youngest  boy  of  the  school  (a  nephew  of 
the  queen,  and  about  eleven  years  old)  stepped 
forward  and  presented  the  hasina,  expressing  the 
allegiance  of  the  people.  The  officer  in  charge 
of  the  guard  of  honor  then  came  and  inquired 
after  the  health  of  the  queen,  and  the  first  cere- 
mony was  at  an  end. 

The  representatives  of  the  foreigners  immedi- 
ately left  and  hurried  down  to  Imahamasina. 
The  roads  were  lined  with  crowds  of  people  in 
garments  of  linen,  prints,  and  calicoes,  and  as  the 
queen  passed  they  chanted  some  national  songs 
and  clapped  their  hands,  beating  time  to  the 
chanting.  Half  way  down  the  hill  the  Friends' 
school  met  the  queen;  but  it  was  much  after 
twelve  before  she  reached  the  plain.  As  she 
passed  the  battery  at  Ambodin,  Andohalo,  the 
immense  crowd  on  the  plain  caught  sight  of  the 
scarlet  umbrellas  and  broke  out  into  shouts  of  the 
wildest  enthusiasm.  Arrived  at  the  first  tri- 
umphal arch,  500  girls  from  the  various  town 
schools  met  her  and  strewed  flowers  on  the  road 
over  which  she  was  carried,  singing  the  while. 
As  she  passed  under  the  second  arch  leading  into 


ACCESSION  OF  RANAVALONA  III.  2/7 

the  inner  square,  the  foreigners  present — English, 
Norwegians  and  Americans — greeted  her  with 
three  hearty  English  cheers.  Turning  to  the 
east  of  the  inner  square,  where  were  sitting  the 
nobles  dressed  in  scarlet,  the  queen  left  her  pal- 
anquin and  ascended  the  platform  by  the  east- 
ern steps,  and  took  her  seat  under  a  beautiful 
canopy  supported  by  four  fluted  gilt  pillars  cov- 
ered with  scarlet  cloth  and  surmounted  by  a  gilt 
crown  nearly  two  feet  high.  At  the  corners  were 
festoons  of  scarlet,  on  her  right  was  a  table  with 
a  marble  top  on  which  rested  a  large  Bible,  and 
at  her  left  was  another  table  with  a  golden  vessel 
of  water.  On  the  four  sides  of  the  cornice  of  the 
canopy  were  the  words,  "God  with  us,"  "Glory 
to  God,"  "Peace  on  earth,"  and  "Good-will 
towards  men. ' ' 

After  a  salute  had  been  fired,  and  the  Euro- 
peans invited  to  the  platform,  from  which  a  good 
view  could  be  obtained,  not  only  of  the  imposing 
ceremony,  but  also  of  the  densely-packed  crowd 
of  people,  the  queen  arose  and  delivered  extem- 
pore the  following  speech: 

"This  is  my  message  to  you,  O  people;  God 
has  given  me  the  country  and  the  kingdom,  and 
I  thank  him  exceedingly.  The  blessings  of  An- 
drianampoinimerina  (the  first  king  of  Imerina) 
and  Iyehidama  (the  first  Radama)  and  Radodon- 


278  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

andrianampoinimerina  (the  persecuting  queen) 
and  Rasoherimanjaka  (the  widow  of  Radama  II.) 
and  Ranavalomanjaka  (the  late  queen)  have  corne 
down  to  me. 

1 1  You,  the  people,  have  assembled  here  on  this 
day  of  my  public  appearance,  and  you  have  not 
deceived  me;  and  so  I  thank  you;  and  may  the 
blessing  of  God  be  on  you  ! 

' '  This  also  I  say  to  you :  as  you  have  not  al- 
tered the  words  of  the  five  sovereigns,  and  seeing 
that  their  memory  is  dear  to  you,  and  you  do  not 
depart  from  the  charge  they  left  you,  I  rest  in 
confidence,  O  people.  I  have  a  father,  I  have  a 
mother,  in  having  you.  May  you  live,  may  you 
be  prosperous,  and  may  God  bless  you ! 

"Rest  in  confidence;  for  it  is  I  whom  God  has 
chosen  to  reign  in  this  island  as  successor  and 
heir  of  the  five.  It  is  I  who  am  your  protection, 
the  refuge  of  the  poor,  and  the  glory  of  the  rich ; 
and  when  I  say  rest  in  confidence,  you  should 
really  be  confident.  For  my  desire  from  God  is 
to  benefit  you,  to  make  you  prosperous,  and  to 
govern  you  in  righteousness.  Is  it  not  so,  O  my 
people  ? 

"  Further,  I  would  remind  you  that  Andrian- 
ampoinimerina was  lord  of  the  land;  Radama  put 
forth  strenuous  efforts  to  make  his  kingdom  stretch 
to  the  sea:  he  left  it  to  his  three  successors,  and 


ACCESSION  OF  RAXAVALOXA  III.  279 

they  have  left  it  to  me.  And  should  any  one  dare 
to  claim  even  a  hair's  breadth,  I  will  show  myself 
to  be  a  man  and  go  along  with  you  to  protect  our 
fatherland.    Is  it  not  so,  O  people  ? 

' '  We  have  treaties  with  our  friends  from  across 
the  sea:  observe  them  strictly,  for  should  any  one 
break  them  I  shall  account  him  guilty  of  crime. 

"I  also  announce  to  you  that  it  is  Rainilaiari- 
vony  who  is  Prime  Minister  and  Commander-in- 
Chief. 

1 '  I  would  also  tell  you,  the  army,  that,  as  to 
the  vows  you  made  with  Radama,  and  which  you 
ratified  to  his  three  successors,  and  which  are  now 
renewed  to  me,  I  can  accept  nothing  else,  O  army. 
Is  it  not  so,  O  soldiers  ? 

u  I  also  tell  you  that  I  place  my  kingdom  un- 
der the  protection  of  God;  for  I  know  that  it  is 
that  kingdom  which  is  governed  in  dependence 
upon  God  that  is  true  and  has  strength  and  pro- 
gress. Go  forward  in  wisdom,  that  the  glory  of 
this  kingdom  may  increase.  Remember  that  it  is 
'righteousness  that  exalteth  a  nation,'  and  that 
1  the  fear  of  God  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom. ' 

"The  laws  of  my  kingdom  will  be  printed 
and  issued  to  all  the  people.  Let  each  one  be- 
ware, for  the  law  is  no  respecter  of  persons;  it  is 
what  a  person  does  that  condemns  him,  for  both  I 
and  you  must  submit  to  the  law.    Observe  the 


28o  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

laws;  for  I  have  no  desire  to  condemn  you,  and  I 
wish  no  one's  life  to  be  taken.  Whoever  forsakes 
the  path  of  righteousness  wTalks  in  the  way  of 
darkness.    Is  it  not  so,  O  people?" 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  speech  there  were  the 
same  demonstrations  of  enthusiasm  as  at  its  com- 
mencement. When  the  queen  had  resumed  her 
seat  the  chiefs  of  the  people  from  all  parts  of  the 
island  came  up  in  groups  to  declare  their  alle- 
giance and  present  the  dollar  as  Jiasina.  The  for- 
eigners went  down  in  groups  to  show  their  re- 
spect, and,  the  London  Missionary  Society  and 
Friends  first,  followed  by  the  Lutherans,  the  An- 
glicans, and  the  merchants,  severally  presented  a 
sovereign  and  made  short  speeches.  At  the  end 
came  Madame  Juliet,  the  descendant  of  the  Bet- 
simisaraka  kings,  from  the  neighborhood  of  Tam- 
atave.  She  had  come  from  the  coast,  occupied  a 
place  of  honor  on  the  platform,  and  she  declared 
that  not  an  inch  of  land  should  be  given  to  the 
French.  She  is  old,  is  a  Catholic,  was  educated 
by  the  sisters  of  mercy  in  Bourbon,  speaks  French 
fluently,  and  the  French  have  always  reckoned 
upon  her;  but  she  declares  that  she  knows  no 
sovereign  but  Ranavalona  III. ,  and  that  she  will 
never  acknowledge  the  French,  preferring  rather 
to  die. 

The  rain  came  on  while  these  speeches  were 


ACCESSION  OK  RANAVALONA  III.  2S1 

being  delivered;  but  the  people  were  not  to  be 
disappointed,  and  kept  their  places.  The  heads 
of  the  people  asked  the  Prime  Minister  to  reply 
to  the  queen's  speech  for  them  all;  and  this  con- 
siderably shortened  the  proceedings.  He  replied 
seriatim  to  the  various  paragraphs,  and  as  he 
stood  with  uplifted  sword  on  the  platform  just  in 
front  of  the  queen,  and  told  her  that  his  own  body 
and  the  bodies  of  all  that  vast  multitude  should 
be  her  wall  of  defence,  the  people  went  frantic. 
Cannons  and  rifles  boomed  and  cracked;  swords, 
shields,  and  spears  were  uplifted  and  clashed; 
hats  and  handkerchiefs  and  lambas  were  waved; 
while  hundreds  of  thousands  of  throats  shouted 
forth  a  wild  and  unconditional  assent.  In  con- 
clusion he  told  the  queen,  bowing  to  the  mis- 
sionaries, that  much  of  the  recent  progress  was 
owing  to  the  teaching  of  those  whom  she  saw 
near  her. 

The  queen  then  rose  and  said,  "If  such  is 
your  speech,  who  are  the  chief,  and  of  you  the 
people,  I  am  confident.  I  have  a  father,  I  have 
a  mother,  in  having  you.  May  you  live,  and 
may  God  bless  you !  Be  wise,  O  ye  people,  that 
you  may  be  at  peace. n 

When  silence  had  been  restored  the  queen  left 
the  platform  and  entered  a  small  carriage  drawn 
by  a  white  pony.    The  latter  was  dispensed  with 


282  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

and  the  officers  drew  her  all  round  the  road,  be- 
tween the  eight  inner  and  the  eight  outer  divi- 
sions, through  the  mass  of  the  people.  All  along 
she  was  greeted  with  the  wildest  enthusiasm. 
After  her  return  to  the  platform  a  final  salute  was 
fired,  and  she  returned  to  the  palace  by  half-past 
four.  If  ever  queen  had  a  royal  welcome  from 
her  people,  she  had  that  day.  All  along  the  way 
back  the  women  and  girls  chanted  their  songs 
and  clapped  their  hands  for  joy. 

On  arrival  at  the  palace  a  short  religious  ser- 
vice of  thanksgiving  was  held  in  the  church,  at 
which  only  natives  were  present. 

Thus  ended,  without  mishap,  accident,  or  out- 
rage, one  of  the  most  memorable  days  Madagas- 
car has  seen. 

Two  or  three  days  subsequently  were  devoted 
to  feasting  and  drinking  the  health  of  the  queen 
and  Prime  Minister,  but  only  in  lemonade,  of 
which  there  was  an  abundant  supply,  while  wine 
and  spirits  had  no  place  at  this  royal  feast.  It  is 
curious  to  note  that  at  the  coronation  of  Radama 
II.,  the  French  protege,  not  only  was  the  king 
intoxicated,  but  many  of  his  guests  and  patrons 
disappeared  under  the  table  before  the  meal  was 
over.  Different  counsels  prevail  now,  and,  as 
the  queen's  speech  shows,  an  evident  desire  for 
real  progress  animates  the  rulers  and  the  chiefs 


ACCESSION  OF  RANAVALONA  III.  283 

of  the  people.  May  they  be  left  to  develop  in  the 
future  as  rapidly  as  they  have  during  the  past 
twenty  years!  must  be  the  prayer  of  all  true- 
hearted  friends  of  Christianity  and  civilization. 

The  queen's  popularity  has  by  no  means  di- 
minished up  to  the  present  time.  She  is  a  thor- 
oughly good  and  earnest  Christian  woman,  one 
whom  we  can  confidently  trust  to  use  every  legiti- 
mate effort  for  the  extension  of  education  and 
morality,  purity,  and  a  higher  social,  domestic, 
and  national  integrity. 

On  December  3,  1883,  Captain  Johnstone  of 
the  "  Dryad,"  who  had,  since  Consul  Paken- 
ham's  death,  been  acting  as  British  Consul  for 
Madagascar,  handed  over  the  archives  of  the  Con- 
sulate to  Consul  Graves  at  Zanzibar.  Mr.  Graves, 
a  man  of  considerable  experience,  having  repre- 
sented Her  Majesty's  Government  both  in  South 
Africa  and  Samoa,  was  then  on  his  way  to  Tama- 
tave,  which  was  from  that  time  to  become  his 
headquarters.  He  was  accompanied  by  Mr.  Pick- 
ersgill,  who  had  been  appointed  as  vice-consul,  to 
reside  in  Antananarivo  to  watch  over  the  inter- 
ests of  British  subjects  there,  and  become  under 
Mr.  Graves  official  adviser  to  the  court  of  the 
young  queen. 

He  entered  the  city  on  January  8,  1884,  amid 
rejoicing  and  under  a  salute  from  the  cannon  of 

Madagascar  anrl  F;arKe.  I *7 


284  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

the  battery.  The  Europeans  turned  out  en  masse 
to  escort  him  to  the  palace,  where  he  had  an  in- 
terview with  the  queen  and  delivered  his  creden- 
tials. A  suitable  letter  of  thanks  from  the  Queen 
to  Her  Majesty  Queen  Victoria  was  despatched, 
and  the  Union  Jack  was  for  the  first  time  hoisted 
in  Antananarivo  over  a  British  Vice-Consulate. 
The  Committee  of  Safety  ceased  to  exist,  regular 
mails  were  established  to  the  coast  under  the 
anthority  of  the  vice-consul,  a  court  of  justice 
(which  has  already  had  some  cases  to  engage  its 
attention)  sat  for  the  first  time  for  the  hearing  of 
cases  in  which  British  subjects  were  involved; 
and  under  the  judicious  care  and  advice  of  Her 
Majesty's  representative  the  British  and  Norwe- 
gian subjects  feel  perfectly  secure  from  any  out- 
rage on  the  part  of  the  natives,  wTho  might  have 
been  supposed  to  bear  an  ill  feeling  against  all 
foreigners  because  of  the  action  of  one  European 
power. 

Vice-consuls  have  been  also  appointed  in  sev- 
eral of  the  ports  north  and  south  of  Tamatave, 
and  the  energetic  and  prompt  way  in  which  H.  B. 
M.'s  consul  has  inaugurated  his  official  connec- 
tion with  Madagascar  speaks  well  for  the  future 
comfort  and  security  of  British  subjects  and  Brit- 
ish interests. 

An  English  man-of-war,  the  "  Tourmaline,' ' 


ACCESSION  OF  RANAVALONA  III.  285 

has  taken  the  place  of  the  "Dryad,"  and  contin- 
ues to  made  periodic  visits  to  the  various  points 
at  which  British  subjects  have  been  known  to 
live,  and  which  have  been  without  exception 
bombarded  by  the  French  squadron,  some  of  them 
two  or  three  times.  As  Captain  Boyle,  the  com- 
mander, says  in  his  despatch  to  Sir  W.  Hewett, 
"An  occasional  visit  during  these  times,  when 
law  is  apt  to  be  in  abeyance,  brings  home  to  gov- 
ernor and  governed  alike  that  the  distinction  be- 
tween enemy  and  neutral  must  be  observed,  and 
that  a  general  disregard  of  treaty  rights  is  no 
part  of  a  state  of  war. ' 1 

A  little  anxiety  was  felt  in  June,  1884,  for  the 
safety  of  British  subjects  in  Antananarivo,  both 
because  it  had  been  reported  to  Consul  Graves 
that  an  advance  on  the  capital  was  anticipated 
by  the  French,  and  also  because  the  negotiations 
between  Admiral  Miot,  who  replaced  Admiral 
Galiber  in  May,  and  the  Malagasy  plenipotentia- 
ries had  been  broken  off,  after  which  the  admiral 
informed  Consul  Graves  that  he  intended  "to 
drive  the  Hovas  out  of  their  camp  in  front  of  the 
town."  However,  the  Christian  spirit  and  grate- 
ful solicitude  for  the  safety  of  the  English  is 
shown  by  the  queen's  words,  as  reported  to  Lord 
Granville  by  Mr.  Pickersgill.  After  calling  upon 
all  her  subjects  to  prepare  themselves  for  war  in 


286 


MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


defence  of  their  fatherland,  she  says,  "  The  nego- 
tiations with  the  French  have  been  broken  off ; 
the  way  they  behave  to  us  is  unendurable,  and 
they  threaten  to  destroy  us  so  that  we  shall  never 
exist  as  a  nation  again.  But  let  there  be  no  com- 
motion, for  our  strength  in  this  affair  lies  in  dis- 
cipline. And  with  regard  to  the  Europeans  now 
resident  here  in  my  country  and  kingdom,  let 
every  care  be  taken  of  them  and  their  property, 
for  they  are  relatives  and  friends  and  in  no  way 
companions  of  those  who  are  fighting  against 
us." 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  Admiral  Miot  was  to 
rebombard  various  ports  on  the  east  coast  and 
institute  a  blockade  of  several,  notwithstanding 
that,  as  he  was  informed  by  Consul  Graves,  the 
"  entire  trade  of  these- places  being  in  the  hands 
of  British  subjects,  they  would  be  the  only  suffer- 
ers from  the  measure. n  According  to  this  pro- 
gramme, an  English  vessel,  the  "  Ore*noque,n 
loading  in  Mahanoro,  was  compelled  to  leave 
after  only  five  hours'  notice,  with  but  half  her 
cargo.  The  Hova  position  near  Tamatave  was 
also  attacked  two  or  three  times,  but  in  each  case 
unsuccessfully.  The  Hova  soldiers  are  behaving 
in  a  cool,  courageous,  soldier-like  fashion;  and 
under  the  command  and  discipline  of  Colonel 
Willoughby,  acting  as  commander-in-chief  under 


ACCESSION  OF  RANAVALONA  ILL  287 

the  Hova  queen,  to  whom  he  lias  volunteered  his 
services,  the  men  are  winning  encomiums  from 
all  who  understand  the  true  bearing  of  the  facts. 
There  seems  very  little  doubt  that  the  French  in 
these  reconnaissances,  notwithstanding  the  re- 
ports of  the  admiral  to  the  contrary,  have  been 
heavy  losers.  The  Hova  spies  have  been  most 
successful  in  approaching  close  to  the  French 
lines  and  obtaining  valuable  information;  and 
their  scouts  have  achieved,  according  to  some 
accounts,  some  wonderful  triumphs,  by  creeping 
up  unseen  to  the  close  proximity  of  bathing  par- 
ties or  pontoon-building  companies,  and  then 
rushing  out  upon  them  with  the  usual  savage  yell 
of  the  Malagasy  warriors,  at  which  the  French 
officers  and  soldiers  have  decamped,  leaving 
mules,  clothes,  and  apparatus  in  the  hands  of  the 
Hovas.  But  these  accounts  are  too  highly  col- 
ored to  be  of  much  value. 

Nevertheless  one  or  two  significant  facts  are 
forced  upon  the  notice.  For  twenty  months  Tam- 
atave  has  been  declared  to  be  a  portion  of  the 
great  French  Republic,  during  the  whole  of  which 
time  it  has  been  besieged  by  a  tribe  whom  the 
French  choose  to  despise  as  ''barbarians,"  and 
yet  whom  they  have  failed  to  dislodge.  Ports, 
such  as  Fort  Dauphin,  Mahanoro,  Fenoarivo,  etc., 
have  again  and  again  been  bombarded,  wealth 


288  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

squandered  in  powder  and  shells,  and  yet  these 
towns  are  still  in  the  hands  of  the  Hovas.  Saka- 
lava  and  Tanosy  have  been  persuaded  to  enlist 
on  the  side  of  the  invaders,  and  then  left  to  the 
tender  mercies  of  the  Hovas,  who  have  recon- 
quered them  where  they  have  not  voluntarily 
come  forward  and  submitted.  Necessity  has  called 
forth  the  developing  faculty  of  the  Hovas,  who 
have  succeeded  in  making  steel  shells  for  their 
long-range  Whitworth  guns,  and  even  in  cast- 
ing some  serviceable  cannon.  Gold,  silver,  lead, 
and  iron  are  being  extensively  worked,  gold-dust 
having  become  quite  a  common  article  of  com- 
merce in  the  interior.  Gunpowder  has  for  very 
many  years  been  manufactured  in  the  Govern- 
ment stores  near  the  capital;  and  they  are  expert 
in  producing  cartridges  for  rifles. 

The  war — if  it  is  worthy  of  the  name — has 
been  the  means  of  calling  out  a  great  deal  of  in- 
nate power  of  resource  on  the  part  of  the  Mala- 
gasy; but  it  is  matter  for  sincere  regret  that  the 
energy  of  the  people  should  thus  be  turned  from 
the  development  of  legitimate  trade,  commerce, 
civilization,  and  Christianity,  which  were  advan- 
cing with  such  rapid  strides  under  the  genial  in- 
fluence of  peace  and  the  gospel. 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  289 


CHAPTER  XII. 

PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE  OF  THE 
MALAGASY. 

What  Interest  has  England  in  Madagascar  ?  Wealth  of  the  Island. 
Importance  to  Mauritius.  Exports  and  Imports.  Slavery 
Still  Existing,  but  Slave-trade  Abolished.  Condition  of  Slaves 
in  the  Country.  Social  and  Political  Advance  made  during 
past  Twenty  Years.  Laws  Codified.  Executive  Government 
Remodelled.  Justice  Impartially  Administered.  Registrars 
Appointed.  All  Improvement  and  Advance  the  Result  of 
English  Sympathy  and  Philanthropy.  The  Religious  Growth 
of  the  People.  Toleration.  Persecution.  Enlightened  En- 
couragement of  Christianity.  Memorial  Churches.  College. 
Extension  of  Evangelistic  Work  to  Other  Districts.  Social 
Advance.  Improved  Services  in  the  Churches.  Native  Preach- 
ers. Evangelists.  English  Opposed  to  French  Missionary 
Work.  Norwegian  Missionary  Society.  London  Missionary 
Society.  The  Friends'  Foreign  Missionary  Association.  Soci- 
ety for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel.  Educational  Work  by 
Protestants,  by  Catholics,  by  the  Government.  Table  of  Sta- 
tistics. Literature. 

IT  may  be  asked,  "What  interest  lias  Eng- 
land in  Madagascar,  farther  than  the  interest  of 
curiosity  in  watching  the  development  and  pro- 
gress of  a  dark-skinned  race  of  islanders  from  bar- 
barism to  civilization,  and  from  heathenism  to 
Christianity?"  This  is  certainly  an  interest  al- 
ways excited  in  the  breast  of  every  enlightened 
Englishman,  who  is  ever  on  the  side  of  advance- 


29O  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

ment,  and  is  always  generously  helpful  to  all  strug- 
gling after  its  attainment. 

But  there  are  other  than  sentimental  reasons 
why  Englishmen  look  with  anxiety  upon  the 
present  check  given  to  the  Malagasy  in  their 
national  advance.  We  remember  that  English 
money,  arms,  and  ammunition  wTere  freely  paid 
to  Radama  I.  in  1818  and  subsequently,  in  order 
that  he  might  carry  out  his  policy  (which  might 
be  called  the  English  policy  also)  of  consolida- 
ting the  various  tribes  of  the  island  under  one  cen- 
tral governor.  In  this  he  was  not  only  assisted 
substantially,  as  stated,  but  he  was  acknowledged 
and  styled  the  ( c  King  of  Madagascar, ' '  both  by  our 
own  Government  and  by  the  French.  Again  and 
again  England  has  rendered  assistance  to  the 
Hova  sovereign  for  this  end;  and  even  expensive 
expeditions  have  been  sent  to  the  Malagasy  capi- 
tal, ostensibly  to  cement  the  friendly  relations  be- 
tween the  two  Governments  and  to  give  encour- 
agement to  the  island  queen,  in  which,  though 
probably  never  stated,  the  impression  has  been 
given  to  the  Malagasy  officers  of  Government 
that  the  English  wrere  still  willing  to  help  them 
in  making  the  authority  of  the  queen  solid  and 
firm  throughout  the  island. 

Commercially,  Madagascar  is  of  great  import- 
ance to  Englishmen.    Not  only  is  the  demand 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  291 

for  English  iron  and  cotton  goods,  glass,  and 
crockery  becoming  each  year  greater  and  more 
remunerative  but,  as  has  been  shown,  the  land 
can  produce  very  many  products  in  great  and  con- 
stant demand  in  this  country.  There  is  in  Mad- 
agascar an  unknown  wealth  of  mineral  produc- 
tions, which  is  but  waiting  the  establishment  of 
confidence  with  Europeans  on  the  part  of  the  na- 
tive Government  so  that  mining  operations  might 
be  undertaken,  and  a  fair  outlay  of  English  capi- 
tal more  than  fully  repay  the  capitalist. 

Then,  again,  one  of  our  small  but  flourishing 
colonies — the  Mauritius — depends  to  a  very  large 
extent  upon  Madagascar  for  its  food  supply,  espe- 
cially for  its  beef,  mutton,  poultry,  and  pork. 
This  supply  it  has  received  regularly  and  easily 
from  the  native  traders  on  the  coast;  but  if  the 
island  is  secured  to  the  French,  or  the  French  ob- 
tain the  mastery  of  the  ports,  many  difficulties  and 
complications  are  sure  to  arise  sooner  or  later  be- 
tween the  colonial  traders  and  the  French  officers. 
It  is  also  curious  to  note  the  piteous  regret  of  the 
French  subjects  in  Tamatave  and  Mahanoro  that 
they  ever,  by  word  or  act,  incited  the  French 
Government  to  undertake  the  present  expedition. 
The  fifty-three  1  ■  children  of  France ' '  who  signed 
the  petition  to  the  president,  telling  him  that  if 
the  Republic  could  not  help  them  against  the 


292  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

savage  hordes  of  Madagascar,  there  was  nothing 
for  them  to  do  but  to  wrap  themselves  in  the  col- 
ors of  La  belle  France  and  die  in  defence  of  the  just 
rights  of  her  outraged  citizens,  are  now  thorough- 
ly disgusted  with  themselves  for  ever  having  been 
such  fools  as  to  have  helped  to  drive  the  Hovas, 
and  with  them  the  trade,  away  from  the  coast. 

But  that  which  is  a  subject  of  annoyance  to 
the  French  settlers,  or  colonists  as  they  were 
pleased  to  call  themselves  in  the  petition  referred 
to  above,  is  a  matter  of  vastly  greater  regret  to 
other  nationalities.  The  trade  of  Madagascar  is 
in  the  hands  of  Americans,  English,  Germans, 
French,  and  Italians,  and  the  proportional  annual 
value  of  the  imports  and  exports  of  each  of  those 
nations  is  in  the  order  they  are  named.  The  value 
of  the  American  commerce  with  the  island  is 
about  equal  to  the  value  of  the  transactions  in  the 
hands  of  the  English  and  French  put  together. 
Their  imports  are  gray  sheeting  and  shirting,  ker- 
osene oil,  and  tinned  goods;  while  the  exports 
embrace  chiefly  hides,  india-rubber,  wax,  and 
gum.  The  English  trade  is  about  five  times  the 
value  of  that  of  the  French,  who  are  surpassed 
considerably  by  the  Germans,  although  the  latter 
are  represented  by  but  one  or  two  firms.  It  is  also 
a  mistake  to  take  for  granted  the  impression  the 
French  colonists  of  Bourbon  try  to  give — that 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  293 

French  subjects  are  very  numerous  in  Madagas- 
car. It  is  well  known  that  the  British  subjects 
in  the  island  far  outnumber  them,  and  the  propor- 
tion of  British  to  French  settled  there  is  said  to 
be  as  five  to  one. 

But  direct  British  interests  are,  notwithstand- 
ing all  this,  far  too  small  commercially  to  account 
for  the  anxiety  felt  in  England  for  the  fate  of 
the  great  African  island.  Neither  is  there  any 
feeling  of  jealousy  on  our  part  underlying  the 
deep  sympathy  felt  for  the  people.  The  French 
press  would  have  the  world  believe  that  Eng- 
lish jealousy  of  the  progressive  colonial  policy  of 
France  is  the  only  reason  for  the  sympathy  ex- 
pressed for  the  Malagasy.  The  anxiety  of  Eng- 
land is  not  against  French  aggrandizement,  but 
she  is  moved  partly  by  that  strong  feeling  which 
hates  to  see  either  the  powerful  struck  after  he  is 
down,  or  the  weak  bullied,  thrashed,  or  annihila- 
ted. But  it  seems  impossible  on  the  part  of  the 
French,  especially  those  in  the  colonies  of  Bour- 
bon, Nosi-be,  and  St.  Mary,  to  believe  that  Eng- 
lish feeling  for  the  Malagasy  can  be  disinterested, 
and  that  there  is  not  more  than  simply  pity  and 
compassion  for  those  whose  advancement  we  have 
watched  with  something  resembling  a  fatherly 
interest. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  no  nation,  writh 


294 


MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


perhaps  the  exception  of  the  Japanese,  has  made 
so  much  progress  and  has  shown  so  much  vigor 
for  development  in  civilization  and  Christianity 
as  the  Malagasy,  especially  the  Hovas,  during  the 
past  twenty  years.  It  is  true,  English  philan- 
thropy, coupled  with  the  sterling  good  sense  of 
the  first  great  king  of  the  Hovas,  Radama  L,  in- 
troduced various  arts  and  manufactures  into  the 
country  in  1820,  but  on  account  of  the  overween- 
ing bigotry  of  Radama's  widow,  who  succeeded 
him,  not  much  progress  was  made.  At  the  same 
time  it  was  no  encouragement  to  an  artisan  to 
make  himself  proficient  in  his  art  when  he  knew 
that  his  skill  would  only  render  him  liable  to  be 
constantly  employed  for  the  queen  or  nobles  with- 
out the  faintest  hope  of  any  remuneration.  In- 
stead of  any  stimulus  being  given  to  progress,  it 
was  rather  retarded  by  the  selfish  policy  of  the 
Government. 

But  since  her  death,  and  especially  since  the 
late  queen,  Ranavalona  II.,  ascended  the  throne, 
giant  strides  have  been  made  in  social,  political, 
and  religious  progress.  The  arts  of  civilization 
have  been  encouraged  by  those  in  authority. 
The  people  are  well  housed,  well  clothed,  and 
well  fed.  The  houses  are  better  built,  of  better 
material,  better  arranged,  and  furnished  with 
well-made  native  furniture.    Ornamentation  of  a 


PRESENT  CIVII,  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  295 

civilized  type  has  taken  the  place  of  the  crude 
and  often  gaudy  attempts  of  twenty  years  ago; 
and  the  silversmith  and  goldsmith  find  plenty  of 
employment.  Carpenters,  stonemasons,  black- 
smiths, bootmakers,  and  tailors  have  also  learned 
to  turn  out  articles  which  would  be  no  discredit 
to  workmen  in  this  country,  while  the  best  build- 
ings in  the  capital  would  be  no  disgrace  to  the 
finest  city  in  the  world.  The  queen's  palace, 
with  its  four  massive  towers,  the  palatial  resi- 
dence of  the  Prime  Minister,  and  the  graceful 
spires  of  the  stone  memorial  churches  attract  the 
attention  of  the  most  indifferent  traveller,  and 
call  forth  the  admiration  of  all  interested  in  the 
social  advance  of  the  world. 

It  is  often  remarked  that  a  country  possessing 
no  roads  better  than  sheep-tracks  cannot  be  occu- 
pied by  any  but  a  barbarous  people,  as  the  forma- 
tion of  roads  is  one  of  the  first  signs  of  advance- 
ment, and  a  ready  means  of  communication  the 
first  requirement  of  civilization.  But  in  this  con- 
nection it  has  to  be  remembered  that  not  only  do 
the  Government  and  people  possess  an  expeditious 
means  of  conveyance  for  news,  despatches,  etc., 
but  their  conservatism  has  always  rendered  them 
jealous  of  the  interference  of  foreigners,  and  their 
patriotism  has  caused  them  to  dread  any  great  or 
sudden  influx  of  those  from  the  outside  world  who 


296  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

might  become  a  source  of  dispute  with  other  na- 
tions, or  might  even  become  so  numerous  as  to 
wrest  the  Government  from  the  hands  of  the 
ruling  powers.  The  native  runners  can  carry  a 
message  from  the  capital  to  Tamatave,  a  distance 
of  about  220  miles,  in  two  and  a  half  days;  and 
although  it  seems  cumbersome  to  Englishmen, 
burdens  of  some  fifty  to  eighty  pounds'  weight  can 
be  transported  on  men's  shoulders  by  the  same 
route  in  six  or  eight  days.  Hence,  seeing  that 
the  people  possess  in  their  own  capital  and  around 
it  all  the  necessaries  of  a  life  far  removed  from 
barbarism,  and  are  able  to  communicate  rapidly 
with  distant  parts  of  the  country,  and  depend  to 
no  material  extent  on  the  imports  from  abroad,  is 
it  surprising  that  they  have  not  expended  money 
and  labor  upon  road-making,  which  they  knew 
would  render  their  position  in  the  centre  of  the 
island  far  less  impregnable  ? 

It  may  be  said  that  this  is  a  short-sighted  pol- 
icy, and,  applying  the  rules  of  political  economy 
to  their  case,  that  it  is  a  shutting  out  of  consider- 
able wealth  from  the  country.  But  it  must  be 
admitted  that  the  first  efforts  of  a  Government 
ought  to  be  directed  to  the  strengthening  of  its 
position  as  ruler,  law-maker,  and  judge.  This 
the  Hovas  have  been  doing  for  the  past  few  de- 
cades, in  the  face  of  violent  opposition  from  the 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  297 

tribes  in  the  country,  and  at  times  against  the 
machinations  of  a  foreign  power  that  has  been 
ready  to  make  hollow  treaties  of  protection  with 
banished  and  outlawed  rebel  chiefs.  Who  that 
seriously  thinks  of  the  many  efforts  made  by  the 
French  to  gain  a  footing  in  the  island,  and  their 
high-handed  policy  with  the  central  Government, 
can  wonder  if  the  people  elect  to  place  no  more 
facilities  in  their  way  to  the  capital,  and  prefer 
their  position  of  comparative  comfort  to  a  life  of 
greater  wealth  and  luxury  at  the  expense  of  the 
probable  loss  of  political  existence? 

Another  blot  on  the  fair  page  of  social  progress 
in  Madagascar,  and  which  is  sometimes  pointed 
at  by  detractors,  is  the  system  of  slavery  still  in 
vogue.  But  considerable  misapprehension  exists 
relative  to  the  position  of  the  Malagasy  slave  to- 
wards his  master.  In  what  is  now  said  there  is 
no  wish  to  palliate  the  error  or  to  give  the  idea 
that  slavery  is  not  an  unmixed  evil.  However 
mild  it  may  be  in  any  country,  it  saps  the  energy 
and  cripples  the  enterprise  of  the  nation.  But  no 
form  of  it  now  exists  in  the  country  except  a  do- 
mestic slavery,  the  slaves  being  the  descendants 
of  those  taken  in  their  civil  wars. 

By  a  treaty  with  England  both  Radama  I.  and 
Ranavalona  I.  abolished  the  export  of  slaves  to 
Bourbon  and  Zanzibar ;  and  the  fearful  scenes 


29$  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

witnessed  by  early  travellers  to  the  capital,  and 
detailed  by  Mr.  Ellis  and  others,  are  now  matters 
of  the  past.  In  1877,  by  an  edict  of  the  late 
queen,  all  the  imported  slaves  and  descendants  of 
those  brought  from  Mozambique  and  elsewhere 
were  liberated.  Option  was  given  them  of  either 
remaining  in  the  country  as  subjects  of  the  queen 
or  of  leaving  the  island  for  their  homes.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  I  believe  all  remained,  and  have 
never  been  treated  but  as  the  faithful  people  of 
the  sovereign.  Their  liberation  was  real,  and 
not,  as  was  stated  at  the  time,  merely  a  ruse  to 
obtain  the  good  opinion  of  England. 

Although  the  time  has  not  yet  come  when  the 
Government  feels  that  all  slavery  may  be  safely 
abolished,  yet  the  new  code  of  laws  greatly  re- 
stricts the  powers  of  the  masters;  and  there  is 
evidence  that  the  system  will  of  itself  crumble 
away  under  the  levelling  influence  of  Christianity 
and  as  the  universal  brotherhood  in  Christ  be- 
comes more  clearly  understood  by  the  people.  As 
instances  of  the  laws  circumscribing  the  powers 
of  masters  over  slaves  may  be  mentioned  the  40th 
in  the  Code,  which  enacts  that,  "Slaves  in  the 
district  of  Imerina  cannot  be  sold  into  the  coast 
districts;  any  person  found  disobeying  this  law 
will  forfeit  the  slave  sold,  which  slave  shall  re- 
vert to  the  crown,  and  one- third  of  the  value  be 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  299 

paid  to  the  person  who  shall  denounce  such  of- 
fence. "  All  internal  slave-trade,  in  the  ordinary 
sense  of  the  term,  is  stopped  by  the  45th  clause, 
which  says,  1 1  Traffic  and  speculation  in  slaves  is 
forbidden,  and  the  owner  alone  has  the  right  to 
dispose  of  his  slaves.  Any  person  found  buying 
and  selling  slaves  for  a  speculation  will  be  fined 
ten  oxen  and  £2.  In  default  of  payment  the  of- 
fender will  be  condemned  to  chains  for  a  period 
corresponding  to  one  day  for  every  sixpence  un- 
paid." And  again,  in  No.  46,  "  It  is  understood 
that  every  person  who  buys  a  slave  does  so  with 
the  intention  of  retaining  him  in  his  household: 
if  the  purchase  be  made  with  the  object  of  resell- 
ing, the  buyer  will  be  fined  ten  oxen  and  £2  for 
unlawful  speculation  in  human  beings;"  and  No. 
47,  uIn  all  sales  of  slaves,  both  buyer  and  seller 
must  notify  the  Government  authorities  for  the 
purpose  of  registration.  In  default  of  registration 
the  sale  is  void.  A  registration  fee  of  one  shil- 
ling must  be  paid  by  each  party." 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  the  system 
of  slavery  is  an  institution  certainly  recognized  by 
the  Government,  but  one  which  the  queen  and 
Prime  Minister  are  anxious  to  see  gradually  los- 
ing its  power  in  the  country.  That  the  time  will 
come  when  the  Christianity  of  the  people  will 

lead  them  to  see  the  unrighteousness  of  holding 
18 


300  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

slaves,  no  one  intimately  acquainted  with  the  na- 
tive character  doubts  for  one  minute;  for  we  have 
known  one  and  another  slave -owning  church 
member  free  his  or  her  slave  from  a  sense  of  the 
incongruity  of  Christian  profession  and  this  prac- 
tice. While  in  the  public  ordinances  of  religious 
worship  no  difference  is  made  between  freemen 
and  slaves,  who  sit  side  by  side  in  our  churches, 
yet  all  know  that,  amid  the  general  freedom  of 
speech  allowed  and  practised  by  the  missionary, 
there  is  the  one  tabooed  subject  of  slavery  upon 
which  it  is  ever  dangerous  to  enter.  One  and  an- 
other who  have  unburdened  their  consciences  in 
a  sermon  or  address  have  met  with  uproar  or  dis- 
turbance; and  it  is  generally  believed  to  be  wiser 
to  allow  the  gospel  leaven  to  quietly  work  to  the 
pulling  down  of  this  vexatious  and  degrading  in- 
stitution. And  that  it  is  so  is  well  known  by  res- 
idents. Mr.  Clark,  writing  to  the  "  Madagascar 
Times "  on  the  subject  of  a  recent  disturbance 
caused  by  the  speech  of  a  missionary  in  one  of 
the  city  churches,  says,  "Some  of  us  know  that 
slavery  here  is  an  evil  eating  into  the  very  vitals 
of  the  Malagasy  Christians;  it  is  the  cancer  which 
is  deadening  the  Christian  life  of  many  of  the  best 
Christians.  Some  of  them  confess  this  to  us  in 
private;  but  although  they  talk  of  and  glory  in 
their  martyrs  of  the  persecution  days,  none  of 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  301 


tliein  are  willing  to  be  the  first  martyr  in  this 
question.  No;  they  still  try  to  persuade  them- 
selves and  think  that  slavery  and  Christianity 
can  continue  to  exist  side  by  side,  that  they  can 
have  the  one  without  giving  up  the  other.  And 
so  they  go  on  without  being  willing  to  take  a 
single  step  to  promote  the  ultimate  abolition, 
either  by  making  a  law  that  after  a  certain  num- 
ber of  years  every  child  born  shall  be  free,  or  by 
fixing  a  price  at  which  any  slave  shall  be  able  to 
redeem  himself.' ' 

Great  hardships  sometimes  are  suffered  by  the 
slaves,  who  are  always  liable  and  often  have  to 
submit  to  be  sold  away  from  their  families;  and 
theoretically  all  that  belongs  to  a  slave  is  his 
master's.  But  in  reality  this  is  only  acted  on  in 
part,  as  a  general  rule  the  slave  being  free  to 
make  what  engagements  he  pleases,  paying  to 
his  master  a  portion  of  the  wages  he  earns. 
Slaves  are  to  be  found  in  different  parts  of  the 
country  working  for  Europeans  and  receiving 
wages  as  free  men,  whose  masters  appear  to  take 
no  further  care  of  them  than  to  make  periodical 
inquiries  as  to  their  whereabouts,  which  general- 
ly means  that  a  sum  of  money,  large  or  small, 
according  to  the  loyalty  of  the  slave,  is  forwarded 
by  him  to  his  master. 

The  political  advance  made  during  the  past 


302  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

twenty  years  is  shown  by  an  examination  of  the 
code  of  laws  referred  to  above,  which  contains 
three  hundred  and  five  statutes.  To  each  of  these 
is  attached  the  punishment  to  be  inflicted  in  case 
of  disobedience;  and  these  penalties  are  character- 
ized by  a  leniency  scarcely  to  be  anticipated  from 
a  nation  so  recently  risen  from  barbarism.  In  no 
case  is  death  inflicted  except  for  such  crimes  as 
are  considered  capital  in  England,  murder  and 
treason.  Laws  regulating  the  conscription  for  ser- 
vice in  the  army  for  the  first  time  made  the  army 
popular  in  the  island  and  brought  forward  many 
volunteers.  A  young  man  found  that  it  was  no 
longer  a  maxim  that,  "  once  a  soldier,  always  a 
soldier, ' '  but  that  after  five  years'  service  he  was 
again  free.  An  important  set  of  laws  relating  to 
the  schools  was  promulgated.  Attendance  at 
school  was  made  compulsory,  and  teachers  were 
given  a  political  standing.  The  manufacture  and 
sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  in  the  interior  of  the 
country  have  been  prohibited.  The  effect  of 
these  laws  has  been  felt  more  or  less  throughout 
the  country,  and  they  have  had  a  decidedly  bene- 
ficial effect. 

Again,  the  executive  Government  has  been 
remodelled.  Although  the  supreme  power  rests 
nominally  in  the  hands  of  the  Queen,  and  really 
in  those  of  the  Prime  Minister — a  man  of  keen, 


MALAGASY  CRIMINAL  IN  CHAINS 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  305 

shrewd  intelligence,  far  beyond  the  next  best 
man  in  the  country — yet  it  has  been  wisely  deemed 
expedient  to  relegate  some  of  his  powers  to  subor- 
dinates. Taking  the  English  Government  as 
their  model,  the  administration  has  been  divided 
into  eight  departments,  each  with  a  Secretary  of 
State  at  its  head,  who  is  responsible  to  the  Prime 
Minister  for  the  carrying  out  of  the  laws  relating 
to  that  department.  The  Prime  Minister,  while 
"educating"  these  secretaries  in  the  conduct  of 
their  office,  is  meanwhile  keeping  the  power  of 
veto  and  supervision  in  his  own  hands.  If  he  is 
ever  able  to  secure  a  staff  of  men  at  all  to  be  com- 
pared with  himself,  there  will  be  in  Madagascar 
a  most  powerful  central  Government. 

Justice  is  most  impartially  administered;  when 
bribery  is  discovered  it  is  severely  punished, 
and  the  desire  to  have  righteous  judgments  exe- 
cuted is  a  powerful  feeling  with  the  Prime  Minis- 
ter. When  the  temptations  are  particularly  strong 
he  has  been  known  to  constitute  himself  chief 
judge  on  a  trial,  and  work  hour  after  hour  through- 
out the  day,  in  order  that  justice  might  be  ad- 
ministered with  impartial  hand. 

Registration  of  births,  deaths,  and  marriages, 
sales  of  property  and  slaves,  have  been  estab- 
lished and  carried  out  by  a  number  of  men  in 
each  large  village,  called  11  Friends  of  the  vil- 


306  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

lage. ' '  These  are  not  only  the  registrars,  but  the 
men  responsible  for  the  peace  and  order  of  the 
village,  and  in  most  cases  the  only  representative 
of  the  central  Government.  They  are  the  guar- 
dians of  the  civil  rights  of  the  people,  and  the  only 
easy  means  of  communication  between  the  com- 
mon people  and  the  Government.  They  thus 
occupy  a  very  important  and  responsible  posi- 
tion, and  are  intrusted  with  all  matters  relating 
to  the  political  and  social  order  of  their  respec- 
tive villages  and  districts.  There  are  over  6,500 
of  these  officers  in  Imerina,  with  198  head  sta- 
tions. There  is  no  Government  officer  in  Eng- 
land whose  position  answers  in  every  respect  to 
that  held  by  these  SakaizamboJiitra.  They  seem 
to  combine  in  a  modified  sense  the  duties  of  all 
civic  officers,  from  those  of  the  mayor  down  to 
those  of  the  common  constable.  They  have  no 
power,  however,  to  settle  any  matter  of  impor- 
tance, but  have  to  report  everything  to  the  Prime 
Minister  for  final  settlement. 

The  book  of  regulations  with  which  they  are 
supplied,  and  which  has  been  circulated  far  and 
wide  in  the  country,  contains  instructions  with 
regard  to  divorce,  polygamy,  registration  of  births, 
deaths,  and  marriages,  the  annual  returns  of  the 
residents  in  each  village,  all  acts  of  oppression 
and  causes  of  social  disturbance,  the  sale  or  rent- 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  REUGIOUS  STATE.  307 

ing  of  land  or  houses,  the  registration  of  property, 
stealing,  loans,  false  weights  and  measures,  the 
cleaning  of  the  roads  and  public  thoroughfares  of 
the  villages,  the  non-separation  of  young  slave  chil- 
dren from  their  parents,  and  also  general  instruc- 
tions with  respect  to  the  observance  of  the  Lord's 
day,  the  attendance  of  children  at  school,  and  the 
proper  regard  to  be  paid  to  places  of  worship. 
For  the  work  involved  in  the  discharge  of  many  of 
those  duties  the  "Sakaizambohitra"  receive  small 
fees,*  varying  from  twopence  to  two  shillings. 

Many  of  these  men  being  old  soldiers,  and 
merely  selected  because  of  their  general  trust- 
worthiness, and  not  on  account  of  any  special 
ability  or  judicial  probity,  were  unable  to  read  or 
write.  This  difficulty,  however,  was  met  by  the 
appointment  of  some  of  the  best  scholars  in  the 
schools  to  accompany  the  functionaries  as  clerks, 
as  readers  and  writers.  Although  officers  under 
the  Government  receive  no  stipend,  yet  the  honor 
of  being  a  Government  clerk  made  these  offices 
popular;  and  as  only  those  were  appointed  who 
had  passed  the  higher  examinations  in  the  schools, 
an  impetus  was  thus  given  to  education. 

A  like  result  was  secured  to  the  highest  edu- 
cational establishment  in  the  island  by  the  selec- 
tion of  ten  of  the  best  educated  of  the  students  in 

*"  Antananarivo  Annual,"  No.  IV.  p.  119. 


3o8 


MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


the  London  Missionary  Society's  College  to  hold 
high  offices  in  the  newly-formed  departments  of 
the  executive. 

It  is  not  far-fetched  to  say  that  all  the  forego- 
ing improvements  and  the  progress  named  have 
been  either  directly  or  indirectly  the  result  of  Eng- 
lish sympathy  and  philanthropy.  Englishmen, 
seeing  a  nation  anxious  to  rise  and  giving  indica- 
tions of  a  capability  to  effect  this  purpose,  have 
come  forward  readily  to  lend  a  helping  hand  to 
the  weak  and  struggling,  and  have  done  it  too 
from  pure  disinterestedness. 

But  not  only  have  Englishmen  shown  a  deep 
interest  in  the  commercial  development  of  Mada- 
gascar as  a  market  for  English  goods  and  a  means 
of  supplying  the  home  market  with  the  valuable 
products  of  the  island;  and  not  only  has  the  British 
nation  done  much  to  strengthen  the  hands  of  the 
Hova  Government,  furnishing  the  means  for  cen- 
tralizing its  authority  and  widening  its  influence, 
but  both  the  interest  taken  in,  the  advance  made, 
and  the  money  devoted  to  that  object  have  for 
years  centred  in  the  moral  and  spiritual  growth 
of  the  people. 

It  was  not  till  1821  that  Christianity  was  real- 
ly effectively  introduced  among  the  Hovas;  and 
the  history  of  its  development  has  been  one  of  the 
greatest  marvels  of  the  Christian  church.  The 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  31I 

trials  and  hindrances  of  these  early  pioneers  of 
civilization  and  Christianity  do  not  here  require 
to  be  entered  upon.  Mr.  Ellis  has  fully  described 
these  matters  in  his  various  works  on  Madagas- 
car. However,  the  language  was  reduced  to  wri- 
ting, the  Bible  translated,  a  few  scholars  induced 
to  attend  the  schools,  a  printing-press  set  up,  and 
a  few  converts  gathered  in.  Interrupted  and  con- 
stantly harassed,  troubled  with  the  difficulties  of 
their  work  and  the  opposition  of  the  idol  priests, 
the  handful  of  English  missionaries  labored  011 
for  twenty  years.  Then  succeeded  one  of  the 
fiercest  persecutions  for  Christ's  sake  that  the 
world  has  of  late  years  seen. 

Ranavalona  I.,  who  has  been  compared  by 
some  to  the  worst  of  the  Roman  emperors,  to 
Nero  or  Caligula,  and  by  others  called  the  Mala- 
gasy Catharine  II.,  whom  she  resembled  in  her 
vices  without  having  any  of  the  redeeming  qual- 
ities of  that  empress,  commenced  a  religious  cru- 
sade against  Christianity.  All  kinds  of  inhuman 
cruelties  were  practised  upon  the  converts,  and 
many  of  those  of  the  highest  rank  suffered  death 
or  imprisonment  for  their  determination  to  serve 
the  true  God.  Some  were  burned,  others  buried 
alive,  others  scalded  to  death,  some  speared,  and 
others  cast  from  the  rock  on  which  the  capital  is 
built  and  dashed  to  pieces  in  the  valley  below. 


312 


MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


The  missionaries  were  driven  from  the  land,  and, 
according  to  one  writer,  the  city  of  Antananarivo 
became  like  a  city  blighted,  which  no  one  could 
approach  or  leave  but  under  pain  of  death.  No 
stranger  was  allowed  to  seek  residence  in  the  cap- 
ital except  by  special  authority  from  the  queen, 
who  accorded  that  favor  to  but  five  or  six  Euro- 
peans. The  silence  of  death  reigned  in  "the 
city  of  a  thousand  villages,"  which  was  not  dis- 
turbed but  by  the  cries  of  the  victims  who  were 
precipitated  from  the  Tarpeian  rock. 

But  notwithstanding  the  terrible  trial,  the 
honesty  of  the  people's  convictions  was  shown  in 
the  fact  that,  in  spite  of  the  number  of  nobles,  of 
women  and  children  even,  who  suffered  for  con- 
science' sake,  when  the  country  was  reopened  for 
the  return  of  missionaries  in  1861  it  was  discov- 
ered that  the  numbers  of  Christians  had,  instead  of 
diminishing,  increased  nearly  thirty-fold.  From 
that  date  till  the  present  steady,  rapid  progress  has 
been  made;  and  the  fiery  trial  through  which  the 
church  had  passed  seemed  to  have  imparted  a  vigor 
which  has  exhibited  itself  in  its  subsequent  history. 

Radama  II.,  who  succeeded  the  persecuting 
queen,  was  neutral  in  his  conduct  towards  Chris- 
tianity, but  very  decidedly  favored  Europeans. 
Christians  were  allowed  to  worship  openly  simply 
because  the  king  ignored  them,  and  they  were 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  313 

happy  in  again  welcoming  their  spiritual  in- 
structors, whom  Radama  was  ready  to  welcome 
with  other  foreigners  into  his  capital.  This  last- 
ed but  for  a  few  months;  and  the  king's  immoral- 
ity and  disingenuousness  hurried  him  into  a  pre- 
mature grave.  Liberty  of  conscience,  but  nothing 
further,  was  granted  by  his  successor,  Rasoherina. 
The  Christians  met  with  no  opposition  but  from 
their  idolatrous  fellow-countrymen,  and  even  that 
was  not  openly  indulged  in  by  them.  The  upper 
classes  of  young  nobles  were  becoming  eager  for 
instruction,  and  with  the  enlightenment  a  knowl- 
edge of  spiritual  things  entered  their  minds  and 
hearts,  so  that  in  nearly  every  family  of  position 
the  younger  members  were  professed  adherents 
to  the  new  faith,  while  a  kind  of  indifference  to 
their  idols  was  creeping  into  the  life  of  the  older 
members  of  these  families.  A  spirit  of  change 
was  in  the  air,  and  the  country  was  ripe  for  the 
radical  subversion  of  popular  beliefs  which  took 
place  soon  after  the  queen's  death.  This  hap- 
pened in  April,  1868,  and  she  was  succeeded  by 
Ranavalona  II.,  the  late  lamented  queen,  the 
meek  "friend  of  the  people."  Once  more  was 
religious  liberty  proclaimed;  but  by  very  clear 
indications  it  was  shown  to  the  people  that  the 
power  of  idolatry  was  on  the  wane.  Reference 
has  already  been  made  to  the  absence  of  the  idol 


314  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

at  the  coronation  ceremony,  and  to  the  very  deci- 
dedly Christian  spirit  manifested  by  the  mottoes 
emblazoned  on  the  canopy  over  the  queen  at  her 
first  appearance  in  public,  heralding  forth  new 
sentiments  for  such  an  occasion,  and  giving  un- 
mistakable signs  that  all  heathenish  rites  were 
set  aside,  and  that  the  heads  of  the  people  recog- 
nized the  growing  power  of  the  gospel,  even  if  it 
might  not  be  taken  as  an  indication  of  the  faith 
of  the  new  Government. 

But  in  the  following  year,  as  we  have  already 
noted,  a  still  more  decided  step  in  advance  was 
made  by  the  queen  coining  forward  and  publicly 
professing  her  adhesion  to  the  religion  for  which 
her  aunt  persecuted  her  subjects.  She  and  the 
Prime  Minister  were  baptized,  and  public  worship 
was  for  the  first  time  conducted  within  the  pal- 
ace inclosure.  Soon  after  this  the  queen  caused 
the  idols  of  which  she  was  supposed  to  be  the 
keeper  and  patron  to  be  burned.  This,  performed 
publicly,  against  all  opposition  of  the  priests,  was 
followed  by  the  wholesale  destruction  of  the  house- 
hold gods  or  fetishes  in  the  possession  of  the  peo- 
ple in  the  capital  and  around  it. 

Then  began  another  testing  time  for  the  in- 
fant church  in  the  island,  but  of  quite  a  different 
nature  from  that  during  Ranavalona  L's  reign. 
Now  the  people,  voluntarily  released  from  all 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  315 

connection  with  their  ancient  idolatry,  flocked  by 
thousands  into  the  churches,  demanding  instruc- 
tion and  admission  to  church  communion,  and 
threatening  to  swamp  the  church  by  their  over- 
whelming numbers.  Had  not  God  given  the' 
grace  of  firmness  and  a  desire  for  purity  to  the 
church  members,  the  result  would  have  been  most 
disastrous  for  the  well-being  of  the  Christian  com- 
munity. The  missionaries  spent  their  whole  time 
in  teaching  and  preaching.  Services  were  held 
throughout  the  day  and  every  day.  The  whole 
business  of  the  people  seemed  to  be  the  acquisi- 
tion of  knowledge  relating  to  Christianity.  In 
fact,  as  Mr.  Sibree  says,  "almost  the  whole  pop- 
ulation of  Imerina  professed  themselves  Chris- 
tians." New  churches  were  built  both  in  the 
city  and  in  every  considerable  village,  and  the 
work  so  rapidly  increased  that  the  society  in  Eng- 
land which  had  taken  in  hand  the  introduction  of 
the  gospel  into  the  island  was  constrained  to  put 
forth  every  effort  to  meet  the  pressing  demand  for 
men  and  money. 

So  great  was  the  enthusiasm  and  satisfaction 
felt  in  England  that  in  a  couple  of  years  after  the 
destruction  of  the  idols  the  number  of  English 
missionaries  at  work  in  the  capital  and  around 
it  had  increased  fourfold.  The  Friends,  seeing 
the  need  there  was  for  efficient  aid  in  the  educa- 


316  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

tional  department,  also  joined  heartily  with  the 
members  of  the  London  Missionary  Society  to 
assist  in  the  great  undertaking.  The  Friends' 
Foreign  Missionary  Association  have  from  that 
time  to  the  present  most  heartily  cooperated  with 
the  missionaries  of  the  London  Missionary  Soci- 
ety;  and  the  union  has  been  for  the  mutual 
strengthening  of  each  other's  plans  and  efforts. 
So  far  as  the  natives  are  concerned,  no  distinction 
is  made  between  those  who  are  joined  with  the 
Friends  in  the  work  and  those  connected  with  the 
London  Missionary  Society.  In  fact,  it  was  soon 
discovered  by  the  former  that  their  hands  were  to 
a  certain  extent  tied  by  the  endeavor  they  made 
to  confine  themselves  to  the  work  of  education, 
and  so  by  a  mutual  arrangement  they  took  under 
their  wing  one  of  the  city  churches  with  its  dis- 
trict which  had  hitherto  been  in  the  charge  of  a 
missionary  of  the  London  Missionary  Society. 

Subscriptions  were  readily  raised  in  this  coun- 
try to  erect  memorial  churches  to  those  martyrs 
who  had  suffered  in  the  capital,  and,  under  the 
efficient  superintendence  of  English  architects 
and  builders,  some  fine  stone  churches  now  grace 
the  different  quarters  of  the  city,  from  Ambohip- 
otsy  in  the  south,  with  its  tall,  elegant  spire,  to 
Faravohitra  in  the  north,  the  substantial  build- 
ing erected  by  the  children  of  England,  and 


AMBATONAKANGA  CHURCH. 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  319 


called  still  the  "  Children's  Memorial  Church. " 
Schools  were  connected  with  each  of  these 
churches,  and  a  Normal  School  for  the  training 
of  teachers  to  supply  the  pressing  want  was  also 
formed.  The  Friends'  school  partook  also  of  that 
character,  as  many  intelligent  and  worthy  young 
men  trained  in  that  school  are  now  laboring  as 
schoolmasters  in  the  country.  Since  its  forma- 
tion the  London  Missionary  Society's  Normal 
School  has  prepared  and  sent  out  students,  who 
have  been  carrying  on  the  work  of  education  in 
the  various  districts  connected  with  the  churches 
in  the  capital.  Some  trained  schoolmasters  have 
also  been  supplied  to  new  districts,  thus  relieving 
the  missionaries  of  the  necessity  of  training  their 
own  teachers  before  the  work  could  be  efficiently 
carried  on. 

But  a  higher  and  special  training  was  required 
by  those  whose  lives  were  to  be  devoted  to  the 
preaching  of  the  gospel;  and  in  Madagascar  the 
fact  that  where  it  is  possible  the  natives  should 
be  trained  to  take  this  work  upon  them  has  al- 
ways been  kept  in  mind  by  those  who  have  di- 
rected the  work.  That  a  time  will  come  when 
the  English  missionary  should  be  withdrawn  has 
always  been  pointed  out  to  the  Malagasy  as  an 
additional  incentive  to  his  fitting  himself  to  fill 
the  English  teacher's  place.     No  difficulty  has 


320  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

been  experienced  in  obtaining  plenty  of  volun- 
teers for  this  work,  but  a  long,  laborious,  and 
self-abnegating  preparation  was  required.  To 
supply  this  a  theological  college  was  commenced 
in  1869,  with  the  view  of  supplying  each  mission- 
ary with  an  efficient  assistant.  A  small  building 
was  secured  in  the  centre  of  the  capital,  and 
under  the  superintendence  of  such  earnest  and 
devoted  men  as  the  Revs.  R.  Toy  and  G.  Cous- 
ins a  number  of  well-qualified  evangelists  were 
sent  out  to  be  a  powerful  item  in  the  progressive 
work.  Some  of  these  early  students  are  even 
now  the  most  influential  men,  both  in  the  native 
pastorate  and  among  the  counsellors  of  the  Gov- 
ernment. One  is  pastor  of  the  church  within  the 
palace  inclosure,  or  the  "Palace  Church,"  as  it 
is  frequently  called;  another  is  the  most  accom- 
plished orator  in  the  capital,  and  a  third  the  pres- 
ent Governor  of  Tamatave. 

As  time  went  on  the  theological  college  was 
extended  into  a  general  college  in  order  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  upper  class  youths  who, 
while  desirous  of  securing  a  higher  education, 
were  not  proposing  to  devote  themselves  to  the 
work  of  the  ministry.  A  more  commodious 
building  was  required,  and  English  liberality 
enabled  the  mission  to  erect  a  splendidly-propor- 
tioned edifice,  containing  all  the  requirements  of 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  321 

a  first-class  educational  establishment,  with  con- 
veniences for  small  or  large  classes,  and  a  mag- 
nificent lecture-hall.  Under  the  same  roof  are 
two  dwelling-houses  for  the  tutors,  the  whole 
building  being  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  orna- 
ments in  that  part  of  the  capital. 

That  this  institution  is  worthy  of  its  name  is 
seen  from  the  fact  that  instruction  is  given  by 
two  English  resident  tutors  and  two  native  assist- 
ants in  Theology,  Exegesis,  Scripture  History, 
Church  History,  Hermeneutics,  Homiletics,  As- 
tronomy, Physical  and  General  Geography,  Alge- 
bra, Arithmetic,  History  of  England,  Greece, 
Rome,  etc.,  Logic,  Grammar,  English.  While 
classes  are  held  regularly  for  the  study  of  these 
subjects,  occasional  lectures  are  given  by  different 
members  of  the  London  Missionary  Society  and 
the  Friends'  mission  on  various  interesting  topics, 
embracing  Natural  History,  Physiology,  Political 
and  Social  problems,  Biography,  and  Philoso- 
phy. 

In  1870  this  work  of  Christianizing  was  ex- 
tended beyond  the  central  province  of  Imerina  to 
the  Betsileo,  among  whom  a  successful  work  has 
been  carried  on.  Schools  and  churches  have 
sprung  up  all  over  the  province;  a  Normal  School 
has  done  good  work  in  providing  teachers;  evan- 
gelists have  been  trained  and  located  in  various 

Madagascar  ana  France.  ▼  q 


333  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

centres,  a  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  has 
been  providing  for  the  higher  wants  of  the  young 
men,  and  a  Home  Missionary  Society  has  fur- 
nished men  and  equipped  them  for  carrying  on 
aggressive  work  farther  south. 

The  same  has  been  done  for  a  province  in  the 
north,  the  Sihanaka,  where  since  1875  vast  strides 
in  moral  and  spiritual  progress  have  been  made, 
and  the  social  condition  of  the  inhabitants  has 
been  vastly  improved  by  the  settlement  of  Euro- 
pean missionaries  among  them.  In  all  these  dis- 
tricts superstition  has  been  losing  its  hold  upon 
the  people;  polygamy,  if  not  absolutely  abolished, 
has  at  any  rate  become  very  rare;  and  cleanly, 
wholesome  habits  have  been  taking  the  place  of 
the  old  filth  and  discomfort.  Divination  and  sor- 
cery are  almost  unheard  of,  and  the  people  may, 
as  a  whole,  be  said  to  be  all  nominally  Chris- 
tian. 

A  complete  change  for  :  .e  better  has,  during 
the  past  few  years,  come  over  these  people.  A 
desire  for  improvement  is  evinced,  and  a  spirit  of 
progress  has  taken  possession  of  them.  Their 
houses  are  no  longer  the  filthy  little  hovels  of  one 
room  only,  which  was  made  to  answer  every  pur- 
pose ;  their  churches  they  have  endeavored  to 
make,  both  in  outward  appearance  and  in  inter- 
nal ornament,  worthy  of  the  worship  to  be  con- 


PRESENT  CIVIL,  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  2>25 

ducted  in  thein;  aud  their  clothing  is  no  longer 
the  small,  greasy  piece  of  matting,  or  rofia  cloth, 
but  in  this  too  they  have  striven  to  imitate  the 
Europeans.  So  that  on  Sunday,  in  one  of  the 
better-built  churches,  a  stranger  would  not  only 
see  nothing  to  offend  his  taste,  but  he  would  find 
as  much  order  and  decorum  among  the  well- 
dressed,  clean  worshippers  as  he  would  find  at 
home — not  perhaps  in  outward  form  of  worship, 
as  the  people  as  a  rule  do  not  change  their  po- 
sition after  they  come  in  till  they  leave  the 
church  except  bowing  the  head  in  prayer — but  in 
the  quiet,  attentive  devotion.  Even  this,  how- 
ever, is  improving  with  other  things,  and  many 
of  the  newer  churches  are  furnished  with  seats, 
and  then  the  people  rise  to  sing,  as  in  this  coun- 
try; but  this  cannot  be  said  to  be  anything  like 
universal. 

Not  only  has  the  general  demeanor  of  the 
worshippers  thus  improved,  but  every  part  of  the 
church  services  has  been  undenjoinq:  a  like  change. 
The  psalmody  has  become  more  and  more  con- 
gregational, not  being  left  to  a  small  body  of  sing- 
ers to  "perform"  most  elaborate  and  difficultly- 
learned  pieces  of  music,  but  all  endeavoring  to 
join  in  praising  God.  Very  many  of  our  best 
hymns  are  translated  into  the  native  language, 
and  have  become  favorites  with  the  people.  But 


326  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

those  which  have  as  a  whole  taken  the  fancy  of 
the  Malagasy  Christians  most  are  the  translations 
of  the  "Sacred  Songs"  of  Sankey,  sung  to  the 
same  tunes.  There  is  a  ring  about  them  which 
has  caught  the  ear  and  imagination  of  the  people, 
and  they  seem  never  to  tire  of  singing  them.  By 
the  help  of  the  Tonic  sol-fa,  which  very  many  of 
the  young  people  have  learned,  they  have  been 
supplied  with  a  large  selection  of  tunes,  which 
they  sing  in  parts  most  effectively. 

In  the  same  way  the  preaching  by  the  natives 
has  been  improved.  This  is  doubtless  to  be  ac- 
cepted as  one  of  the  indirect  benefits  derived  from 
the  college.  Mr.  Cousins,  speaking  of  the  sub- 
ject, says,  "Malagasy  preachers  have  still  much 
to  learn,  and  in  spiritual  insight,  high  tone,  and 
moral  force  are  sadly  deficient;  but  in  matter, 
breadth  of  thought,  arrangement,  style,  and  de- 
livery there  are  many  acceptable  and  efficient 
preachers.  In  these  respects  there  no  longer  ex- 
ists the  great  difference  between  the  European 
and  the  native  that  formerly  was  so  striking.  To 
the  college  this  is  in  no  slight  measure  due." 

This,  however,  only  applies  to  the  better  class 
of  trained  preachers  and  pastors,  those  who  have 
passed  through  a  regular  course  of  instruction. 
There  are  a  great  number  who  have  but  a  limited 
knowledge  of  the  subjects  treated  of  in  the  Bible, 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  327 

which,  however,  they  profess  to  expound.  There 
are  over  four  thousand  preachers  in  Madagascar;  * 
but  though  many  of  them  are  not  worthy  of  the 
name,  yet  it  is  an  indication  of  the  bent  of  the 
mind  of  the  people;  and  if  the  desire  to  preach 
and  extend  Christ's  kingdom  is  recognized,  fos- 
tered, and  trained,  these  men,  who  perhaps  most 
nearly  correspond  with  the  local  preachers  among 
the  Wesleyans,  will  become  an  immense  power 
in  the  nation,  and  notably  in  the  church  life  of 
the  Christians.  And  even  now  who  can  estimate 
the  value  of  the  few  words  earnestly  spoken  in 
the  many  dark  places  into  which  these  Malagasy 
preachers  itinerate,  where,  but  for  their  message 
of  salvation,  the  voice  of  the  gospel  would  seldom 
be  heard?  Engaged  in  trading  or  Government 
service  during  the  week,  they  endeavor  to  seek 
the  spiritual  good  of  their  fellow-countrymen  on 
the  Sabbath.  They  are  a  great  support  to  the 
missionary  and  native  pastors,  and  had  it  not 
been  for  the  assistance  they  have  rendered  it 
would  have  been  impossible  to  carry  on  the  work 
that  has  been  accomplished.  * 

From  the  trained  men  have  been  selected  the 
evangelists  and  native  missionaries  since  1873, 
when  the  first  batch  of  students  left  the  college; 
and  the  number  of  these  valuable  workers  has 

*  Rev.  C.  Jukes  in  "  Madagascar:  Ten  Years'  Review,"  p.  139. 


328  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

been  increased  from  year  to  year,  as  the  young 
men  have  finished  their  course  of  study.  Some 
are  sent  to  distant  places  on  the  northeast,  south- 
east, and  southwest,  while  others  occupy  impor- 
tant centres,  under  the  direct  control  of  a  mission- 
ary superintending  the  district  in  which  the  town 
is  situated.  In  their  spheres  they  do  a  work  very 
similar  to  that  carried  on  by  the  missionary  in  his 
station — holding  Bible  classes  for  all,  preachers' 
classes,  teaching  in  the  schools,  forming  boarding- 
schools,  singing  and  sewing  classes,  visiting  the 
sick,  as  well  as  preaching  on  the  Sabbath.  By 
these  means  the  gospel  has  spread  in  a  marvel- 
lously rapid  way  over  those  parts  of  the  island 
into  which  the  missionaries  have  penetrated  and 
settled;  the  people  have  been  raised  in  social  posi- 
tion, education  has  taken  a  firm  hold,  and,  by  the 
blessing  of  God,  the  same  result  will  follow  ear- 
nest endeavor  in  other  parts  of  the  island. 

To  a  very  great  extent  this  improvement,  the 
statistics  of  which  we  give  below,  is  due  to  the 
help  rendered  by  English  Christians,  who  have 
spent  not  less  than  ^23,000  a  year  for  the  past 
five  or  six  years,  and  a  considerable  proportion  of 
that  sum  every  year  since  1870.  For,  although 
to  the  French  Jesuits  is  due  the  honor  of  having 
commenced  missionary  work  in  Madagascar,  their 
missionaries  were  stationed  only  on  islands  off  the 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  329 

coast  and  at  the  posts  formed  by  the  French  in 
their  abortive  attempts  to  gain  possession  of  the 
island  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  they  aban- 
doned the  work  when  their  Government  with- 
drew from  the  coast.  And  since  1862,  when  a 
mission  was  formed  in  Antananarivo  and  Tama- 
tave,  to  be  augmented  by  those  in  the  Betsileo, 
although  they  have  had  a  large  number  of  priests, 
lay  brothers,  and  sisters  of  mercy  at  work  at  vari- 
ous times,  yet  they  have  never  laid  a  firm  hold 
upon  the  people.  It  seems  strange  that,  with 
their  love  of  the  gorgeous,  the  Malagasy  have 
not  been  particularly  attracted  by  the  ritual  of  the 
Roman-catholics.  Doubtless  this  is  in  part  owing 
to  the  detestation  in  which  their  nationality  is 
held,  as  also  to  the  firm  conviction  which  all  the 
Malagasy  have  that  the  Bible  is  the  foundation  of 
all  Christianity,  and  they  are  not  inclined  to  fol- 
low or  believe  any  form  of  worship  which  cannot 
be  shown  to  be  taught  by  that  Book.  Hence 
even  Jesuit  priests  are  compelled  to  read  the  Bible 
in  their  services  and  use  what  devices  they  may 
to  convince  their  adherents  that  their  form  of 
worship  is  taught  therein.  As  this  is  not  an  easy 
matter,  notwithstanding  the  prevarication  and 
untrue  statements  employed,  no  firm  hold  has 
been  obtained  by  them  upon  the  adult  population. 
Hence  their  wily  influence  has  been  principally 


33°     •        MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

brought  to  bear  upon  the  young,  whom  they  have 
cajoled  and  bribed  into  consenting  to  have  them- 
selves enrolled  as  pupils  of  the  priests,  knowing 
full  well  that,  according  to  the  native  law,  no 
pupil  can  leave  one  school  to  join  another  of  a 
different  denomination.  Perfect  liberty  has  been 
granted  by  the  Government  to  all  its  subjects  to 
worship  how  or  where  they  pleased;  and  every 
parent  has  been  absolutely  free  to  select  the  school 
to  which  he  would  send  his  children  to  be  taught; 
but  having  once  entered  the  name  as  a  pupil  of 
one  society,  the  child  cannot  be  withdrawn  except 
under  very  exceptional  circumstances  and  by  ap- 
peal to  the  Government. 

A  good  work  has  been  done  by  the  Norwe- 
gians. Three  of  their  missionaries  arrived  in  the 
capital  in  1867,  and  by  an  arrangement  with  the 
London  Missionary  Society  commenced  work  in 
the  unoccupied  and  heathen  district  of  Vakinan- 
karatra,  between  Imerina  and  the  Betsileo.  They 
were  welcomed  heartily  by  the  missionaries  as 
fellow-workers,  and  those  friendly  relations  have 
been  maintained.  After  working  for  many  years 
in  their  own  district  with  very  marked  success, 
they  felt  they  labored  under  a  great  disadvantage 
in  not  having  a  representative  church  in  the 
capital,  and  accordingly  in  1875  a  prominently- 
placed,  well-built  church  was  opened  in  Antana- 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  331 

narivo.  To  this  was  attached  a  theological  sem- 
inary containing  an  average  of  twenty  students, 
whose  course  of  training  resembles  that  obtained 
in  the  London  Missionary  Society's  College,  with 
Greek  and  Norwegian  taught  to  the  cleverest  of 
the  students.  An  asylum  for  girls  was  opened  in 
1872  and  one  for  boys  in  1873,  the  former  having 
about  sixty  and  the  latter  thirty  pupils,  where, 
by  their  long  residence  in  a  Christian  family,  a 
training  is  given  which  places  these  young  peo- 
ple at  a  much  higher  moral  and  religious  eleva- 
tion than  any  other  kind  of  education  could  pos- 
sibly accomplish. 

Mr.  Dahle,  in  1880,  says  of  their  work,  "  Be- 
ing by  principle  and  experience  very  cautious  in 
admitting  people  into  our  churches,  we  have  only 
been  able  to  receive  a  small  number  into  church 
membership.  The  total  number  of  our  church 
members  is  therefore  only  about  1,400,  and  the 
average  number  of  people  who  congregate  in  our 
churches  on  Sundays  is  about  12,000.  Our  na- 
tive agents  (teachers  and  preachers)  are  about  150 
to  200."  Beside  this  mission  in  the  interior,  the 
Norwegians  are  the  only  men  who  have  labored 
on  the  west  coast,  where  for  some  nine  or  ten 
years  they  have  had  one  or  two  missionaries  sta- 
tioned. But  owing  to  various  causes — the  un- 
healthiness  of  the  climate  and  the  unsettled  state 


332  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

of  the  country — they  have  not  been  cheered  with 
many  direct  evidences  of  success. 

The  work  done  by  Englishmen  in  evangeliza- 
tion and  civilization  has  been  conducted  by  three 
or  four  societies.  The  London  Missionary  Soci- 
ety, whose  work  has  been  in  part  described,  has 
had  the  honor  of  leading  the  van.  Recommen- 
cing work  in  1862,  under  the  leadership  and  su- 
perintendence of  Mr.  Ellis,  than  whom  no  one 
has  done  more  for  Madagascar,  the  missionaries 
quickly  found  their  way  to  the  confidence  and 
respect  of  the  people.  The  queen,  Prime  Minis- 
ter, and  chief  nobles  have  always  declared  them- 
selves adherents  of  this  society,  and  are  members 
of  churches  founded  under  its  auspices  and  ac- 
cording to  its  teaching.  The  number  of  mission- 
aries  belonging  to  the  London  Missionary  Society 
has  gradually  increased  from  the  half  a  dozen  in 
1862  to  twenty-nine  in  1885,  including  the  ladies 
devoted  to  the  teaching  of  the  girls  in  the  capital 
and  at  Fianarantsoa.  The  number  of  adherents 
has  increased  in  a  far  greater  proportion.  In 
1862  there  were  about  7,000,  but  now  there  are 
over  300,000,  while  in  1880  there  were  reported 
to  be  4,134  preachers. 

Working  in  thorough  and  hearty  cooperation 
wTith  the  London  Missionary  Society  is  the 
Friends'  Foreign  Missionary  Association,  the  first 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  333 

of  whose  missionaries  arrived  in  Antananarivo  in 
1867;  and  so  close  has  been  the  union  between 
the  two  societies  that  in  the  eyes  of  the  natives 
both  are  "as  brethren  joined  together  in  one  com- 
mon work. ' '  By  this  close  union  each  has  been 
benefited;  one  has  stimulated  the  other  with  ad- 
vice and  example,  and  the  work  has  been  done 
the  better  for  the  united  sympathy  and  action. 
The  Friends  came  into  the  field  with  the  avowed 
intention  "of  doinor  nothing  to  unsettle  the  minds 
of  the  native  Christians  on  any  of  the  minor  points 
of  Christian  doctrine  on  which  their  own  views 
might  differ  from  those  of  the  missionaries  already 
at  work  in  the  island;  while  they  felt  such  full 
unity  of  sentiment  with  them  in  all  that  was  fun- 
damental that  a  clear  field  of  labor  appeared  be- 
fore them,  in  which,  while  being  on  an  indepen- 
dent footing,  they  could  work  by  the  side  of  and 
with  those  already  in  the  field  for  the  one  great 
end  of  bringing  the  knowledge  of  salvation  to  this 
dark  land.  And  so,  in  regard  to  church  govern- 
ment and  organization,  they  had  no  difficulty  in 
accepting  what  they  found  already  in  vogue."* 
In  1 861  the  Friends  agreed,  with  the  consent  of 
the  London  Missionary  Society,  to  take  over  one 
church  in  the  capital,  Ambohitantely,  with  its 

*  Report  of  Friends'  Committee.  "Madagascar:  Ten  Years' 
Review,"  p.  265. 


334  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

district,  but  to  work  it  "in  union  with  the  other 
churches  in  Antananarivo,  bound  by  whatever 
arrangement  the  churches  generally  have  entered 
into  or  may  hereafter  enter  into."  That  is  to 
say,  this  church  was  still  connected  with  the 
Congregational  Union. 

As  nearly  as  possible  the  Friends  have  worked 
along  the  same  lines  followed  by  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society,  in  the  matter  of  church  govern- 
ment allowing  the  native  Christians  to  adopt  such 
measures  as  seemed  most  in  accordance  with  their 
mode  of  thought,  so  long  as  the  plans  were  Scrip- 
tural. Hence  the  form  of  church  government  has 
developed  into  a  kind  of  modified  Congregational- 
ism, having  a  large  element  of  Presbyterianism, 
Episcopalianism,  Wesleyanism,  and  Quakerism 
infused  into  it.  This  has  been  found  to  work 
well,  without  in  the  least  hampering  the  workers, 
and,  it  is  believed,  to  the  great  advantage  of  the 
Christianity  of  the  country.  The  Friends  have 
also  heartily  fostered  the  principle  of  self-help  so 
strongly  advocated  by  the  London  Missionary  So- 
ciety's missionaries,  with  a  view  to  some  of  their 
adherents  becoming  missionaries  in  connection 
with  the  Native  Home  Missionary  Society.  The 
district  thus  worked  upon  by  the  Friends  is  a  tract 
of  country  wedge-shaped,  having  its  apex  in  the 
capital,  and  spreading  out  to  the  southwest,  con- 


PRESENT  CIVIL,  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  335 

taining  a  population  estimated  at  200,000.  It 
was  the  district  which  was  the  last  of  those  con- 
nected with  the  city  churches  to  cotne  under  the 
influence  of  the  gospel,  being  only  fourteen  years 
ago  inhabited  by  robbers,  who  obtained  a  liveli- 
hood by  men-stealing  and  cattle-lifting,  who  were 
idolaters,  and  among  whom  were  no  schools. 

However,  under  the  able  superintendence  of 
such  men  as  Mr.  Sewell,  the  character  of  the 
district  was  soon  changed;  chapels  and  schools 
sprang  up  and  were  carefully  tended,  until  now 
there  are  over  120  churches,  with  an  aggregate 
attendance  on  Sabbaths  of  over  19,000  persons, 
nearly  4,000  of  whom  are  church  members. 

The  other  missionary  society  spending  English 
money  in  Madagascar  is  the  Society  for  the  Prop- 
agation of  the  Gospel.  In  1862  an  agreement  was 
made  between  Bishop  Ryan,  in  Mauritius,  and 
Mr.  Ellis,  as  representing  the  London  Missionary 
Society,  that,  inasmuch  as  the  latter  was  firmly 
established  in  the  central  province,  that  should  be 
considered  its  special  sphere,  and  that  the  Church 
of  England  missionaries  should  confine  themselves 
to  the  coast.  This  was  so  arranged  in  order  that 
the  minds  of  the  people  might  not  be  disturbed 
by  the  appearance  of  two  different  sets  of  Protes- 
tant teachers,  each  with  their  own  peculiar  doc- 
trines and  forms  of  church  government  and  rit- 


336  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

ual.  Accordingly  two  members  of  trie  Church 
Missionary  Society  settled  on  the  coast,  one,  in 
1864,  at  Vohimaro,  the  other,  in  1866,  at  Ando- 
voranto,  and  a  member  of  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  was  placed  at  Tama- 
tave  in  1864.  All  worked  well  until  the  latter 
society  endeavored  to  extend  their  mission  by  se- 
curing a  bishop  for  Madagascar,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  placing  him  at  Antananarivo  with  a  staff 
of  clergy,  in  opposition  to  the  above  agreement. 
On  the  application  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury for  license  to  consecrate  a  bishop,  his  lord- 
ship declined,  for,  as  he  very  truly  said,  uthe 
advent  of  a  bishop  in  Madagascar  would  be  cal- 
culated to  produce  schism  in  the  Anglican  com- 
munity, and  therefore  have  an  injurious  effect  on 
the  conversion  of  the  heathen  of  that  country. n 

After  the  appointment  had  gone  begging  for 
some  time  it  was  offered  to  the  Rev.  R.  Kestell- 
Cornish,  of  the  High  Church  party,  and,  at  the 
request  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the 
Scottish  bishops  consecrated  him  in  February, 
1874,  as  Bishop  for  Madagascar — a  bishop  with- 
out a  diocese,  cathedral,  or  clergy,  and  consecra- 
ted for  the  purpose  of  endeavoring  to  build  up  a 
Ritualistic  Anglican  Church  upon  the  founda- 
tions already  laboriously  laid  by  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society.    The  Church  Missionary  Soci- 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  2>37 

ety,  feeling  that  they  could  not  countenance  such, 
to  say  the  least,  ungenerous  conduct,  withdrew 
from  the  country  rather  than  remain  and  appear 
to  be  indifferent  to  the  breaking  of  an  express 
agreement  under  which  they  had  been  success- 
fully laboring  for  seven  or  eight  years. 

The  work  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel  in  the  capital  began  in  1872.  A 
church  was  commenced,  and  a  few  village  stations 
have  been  opened,  mostly  in  villages  in  which 
there  is  already  a  church  belonging  to  one  of  the 
other  Protestant  societies,  or  in  close  proximity  to 
one.  Schools  were  formed  and  a  hospital  opened. 
But  the  general  impression  given  even  by  their 
own  men  is  that  they  have  been  disappointed  at 
the  results. 

Nevertheless,  a  great  deal  of  English  money 
has  been  spent  by  them  in  erecting  churches, 
schools,  and  mission-houses,  in  the  former  doing 
more  for  the  natives  at  the  present  time  in  pro- 
portion than  either  of  the  other  English  societies, 
who  have  acted  upon  the  principle  of  encoura- 
ging the  people  to  build  their  own  churches  and 
schools,  and  simply  helping  them  with  a  donation 
to  purchase  those  fittings  not  to  be  found  in  the 
country,  such  as  glass,  locks,  hinges,  etc. 

Elementary  education  has  by  every  Protestant 
society  been  looked  upon  as  of  the  utmost  impor- 


33$  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

tance  to  the  well-being  of  the  mission,  and  stren- 
uous efforts  have  been  made  to  render  this  depart- 
ment thoroughly  efficient.  The  Government  too 
have  readily  recognised  the  value  of  education, 
and  have  again  and  again,  during  the  past  twenty 
years,  made  spasmodic  efforts  to  improve  the 
school  system.  Messages  have  been  once  and 
again  sent  to  governors  at  a  distance  to  command 
the  people  to  send  their  children  to  school,  "be- 
cause the  queen  did  not  wish  to  have  fools,  but 
wise  men,  as  her  subjects."  But  after  a  little 
fussy  stir  in  the  district  all  was  once  more  forgot- 
ten. Occasionally  names  would  be  written  of  all 
the  children  in  a  governor's  district  who  were  at 
school,  and  an  estimate  was  obtained  of  those  still 
remaining  away,  and  a  threat  was  held  over  the 
heads  of  the  latter  that  they  would  be  taken  for 
soldiers.  Then  for  a  short  time  a  marked  in- 
crease in  the  attendance  would  be  noticed. 

Meanwhile  the  Roman-catholic  priests,  in  their 
desire  to  check  the  education  which  would  of  ne- 
cessity in  course  of  time  undermine  their  ascend- 
ency, adopted  a  policy  I  have  seen  carried  out  in 
one  district,  and  which  I  have  heard  has  been 
tried  in  others.  In  order  to  prevent  children  wan- 
dering from  school  to  school,  the  Government, 
while  permitting  the  children  to  choose  the  school 
to  which  they  would  go,  interdicted  them  from 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  339 

leaving  it.  Accordingly  the  priests  gave  it  out, 
for  the  benefit  of  those  ignorant  parents  who  for 
various  causes  were  glad  of  an  excuse  for  not  send- 
ing their  children  to  school,  that  if  they  would 
but  give  in  the  names  of  their  children  to  them 
and  would  come  and  worship  with  them  on  Sun- 
days, they  should  be  excused  from  sending  their 
children  during  the  week.  The  consequence  was 
that  dozens  of  names  of  children  appeared  in  the 
registers  of  the  priests'  schools  who  not  only  never 
attended  school,  but  who  were  encouraged  thus  to 
hoodwink  the  Government  authorities  behind  the 
shield  of  the  priests  in  consideration  of  attendance 
at  mass. 

In  one  part  of  the  country,  the  Betsileo,  this 
dishonest  dealing  led  to  serious  disturbances  with 
the  native  authorities,  and  the  priests  chose  to 
represent  to  the  French  consul  that  they  were 
being  persecuted  as  Frenchmen. 

But  in  1881  the  educational  system  was  put 
upon  a  new  and  firmer  basis.  One  of  the  eight 
Secretaries  of  State  was  an  intelligent  officer  in- 
trusted with  this  department,  and  a  rapid  improve- 
ment of  all  kinds  of  elementary  schools  was  the 
result  of  his  administration.  All  children  over  7 
and  under  14  years  of  age  were  to  attend  school 
regularly.  To  effect  this,  the  names  of  all  chil- 
dren between  those  ages  were  written  in  the  Gov- 
20 


340  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

ernment  books  and  the  school  to  which  they  pre- 
ferred to  go.  Agents  were  appointed  in  every 
centre  to  see  that  the  children  actually  attended 
instruction  every  day  the  schools  were  open,  un- 
less illness  or  some  other  sufficient  cause  pre- 
vented. Teachers'  and  monitors'  names  wTere 
also  registered,  and  no  removal  could  take  place 
without  information  being  sent  to  headquarters. 
Certain  fines  were  to  be  inflicted  upon  the  teach- 
ers if  they  knowingly  permitted  the  infringement 
of  the  laws  by  their  scholars. 

Although  the  Government  has  thus  taken  the 
school  attendance  in  hand,  and  the  scholars  may 
in  a  sense  be  said  to  be  Government  pupils,  yet, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  missionary  in  whose  schools 
the  chilren  are  taught  has  the  fullest  control  over 
all  arrangements,  examinations,  holidays,  and  the 
like.  As  Mr.  Clark  points  out,  "  Theoretically, 
the  connection  of  the  missionary  with  the  schools 
is  anomalous;  practically,  there  is  no  difficulty 
whatever.  We  are  permitted  to  visit  these  schools 
and  provide  school  -  books ;  we  are  permitted  to 
examine  the  schools;  but  if  we  do  this  we  must 
inform — they  do  not  say  ask  leave  of— the  head  of 
the  department  in  town.  If  we  were  disposed  to 
be  captious  we  might  find  cause  of  complaint  in 
all  this,  but  it  is  not  worth  while;  and  so  for  the 
present  we  go  on  our  way,  doing  the  best  we  can 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  341 


under  the  permission  so  graciously  given  us,  and 
thankful  that  we  can  thus  influence  for  good  those  , 
thousands  of  the  rising  generation  in  Central 
Madagascar. ' '  * 

Prom  a  schedule  issued  by  the  Government, 
we  find  that  after  the  completed  registration  there 
are  1,167  schools  and  150,906  scholars,  divided 
among  the  various  societies  thus: 

SCHOOLS.  SCHOLARS. 

London  Missionary  Society  and  Friends'  Foreign 

Missionary  Association  818  105,516 

Norwegian  Missionary  Society  117  27,909 

French  Jesuit  Mission  191  14,960 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel    ...     41  2,521 

Notwithstanding  the  outbreak  of  hostilities 
with  the  French,  the  queen  has  issued  most  ex- 
plicit orders  that  the  work  of  education  must  not 
flag.  In  the  absence  of  the  priests  many  of  the 
Roman-catholic  scholars  are  attending  the  schools 
of  the  other  missions;  but  no  opposition  is  offered 
to  the  native  Catholics  in  their  attendance  at  their 
own  places  of  worship  on  the  Sabbath. 

The  spread  of  education  has  also  created  a 
desire  for  literature,  and  the  want  is  being  sup- 
plied as  rapidly  as  five  mission  printing  establish- 
ments in  constant  work  can  meet  the  demand. 
School-books  by  the  hundreds  of  thousands  have 
been  issued  for  the  use  of  scholars,  while  the 

*  "Antananarivo  Annual,"  No.  VI.  p.  99. 


342  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

magazines  and  books  are  bought  eagerly  by  the 
young  men.  The  native  "Good  Words"  has  a 
monthly  sale  of  about  3,000,  and  is  growing  in 
favor  and  circulation.  The  1 1  Children' s  Friend, ' 1 
illustrated  with  engravings  that  have  appeared  in 
the  English  paper  of  the  same  name,  is  very  pop- 
ular among  our  school  children;  and  a  paper  with 
the  plates  of  the  "  British  Workman,"  and  called 
"Vary  Tondrahantantely "  (rice  mixed  with 
honey),  is  read  in  many  households,  the  large 
first-page  picture  being  subsequently  utilized  as  a 
wall-decoration.  That  the  rising  generation  are 
becoming  more  and  more  thoughtful  is  shown  by 
the  ready  and  large  sale  secured  by  such  books  as 
a  "Treatise  on  Logic,  Astronomy,  Physical  Ge- 
ography," and  a  quarterly  magazine  called  the 
"  Mpanolo-tsaina"  (the  Thought  or  Counsel  Giv- 
er). The  preachers  and  Bible  students  find  their 
wants  are  met  by  the  various  Commentaries,  a 
"Bible  Dictionary,"  an  "Introduction  to  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,"  "Pilgrim's  Prog- 
ress," the  "Patriarchs,"  the  "Companions  of 
Our  Lord,"  "Fifty-two  Outlines  of  Sermons," 
and  many  other  books  of  a  like  nature. 

The  Religious  Tract  Society  and  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society  have  each  assisted  in 
this  work.  By  grants  of  paper,  etc.,  from  the 
former,  books  can  be  sold  in  the  country  at  a 


PRESENT  CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  STATE.  343 

price  to  cover  the  printing,  etc,  and  by  the  help 
of  the  latter,  Bibles  and  Testaments  to  the  num- 
ber of  132,000  in  nine  and  a  half  years  have  been 
sold  for  the  cost  of  carriage,  etc. ,  from  England. 

The  above  facts  and  figures  tell  their  own  tale 
of  substantial  progress  by  the  ruling  race  in  the 
island.  We  have  seen  that  this  influence  is  grad- 
ually extending  over  the  whole  country,  and, 
judging  by  the  past,  we  dare  entertain  well- 
grounded  hopes  that  the  progress  in  the  future 
will  be  even  more  marked  and  more  rapid,  if  the 
nation  is  allowed  to  develop  under  the  auspices 
of  enlightened  Protestantism.  And  inasmuch  as 
it  has  been  shown  that  a  very  great  deal  of  this 
material,  social,  political,  and  Christian  progress 
has  been  accomplished  by  the  aid  of  Englishmen 
and  English  money,  we  contend  that  England 
has  some  right  to  feel  a  deep  interest  and  intense 
sympathy  for  those  who  have  repaid  her  care  by 
rising  from  heathenism  to  Christianity  and  from 
barbarism  to  civilization. 


344  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR. 

Theories  to  Account  for  Specialized  Character  of  the  Fauna.  Mr. 
A.  Wallace's  Theory.  Remains  of  an  Ancient  and  Extinct 
Fauna.  Comparatively  Small  Amount  of  Animal  Life  in  the 
Forests.  Lemurs.  Aye-aye.  Pintsala  Fosa.  Genetts.  Ich- 
neumon. Wild  Cats.  Centetes.  Bats.  Domestic  Animals. 
Horses.  Sheep.  Pigs.  Reptiles.  Chameleons  and  Lizards. 
Snakes.  Frogs.  Tortoises.  iEpyornis.  Eagles.  Falcons. 
Hawks.  Crows.  Weaver-finches.  Fody.  Parrots.  Aqua- 
tic birds.  Lepidoptera.  Spiders.  Bees.  Ants.  Coleoptera. 
Fresh-water  Shrimps.    Toho.    Zompona.  Sharks. 

No  part  of  the  world  has  proved  so  interesting 
to  the  zoologist  or  such  a  paradise  to  the  botanist 
as  the  island  of  Madagascar.  The  former  has  for 
long  past  been  puzzled  in  his  endeavors  to  ac- 
count for  the  peculiar  species  of  animal  life  repre- 
sented, so  different  from  those  found  in  the  ad- 
joining continent,  while  apparently  more  closely 
connected  with  the  families  found  in  India  and 
the  Malay  peninsula  and  islands.  Various  theo- 
ries, more  or  less  far-fetched,  have  been  started  to 
account  for  this  by  the  many  eminent  zoologists 
who  have  given  much  thought  and  study  to  the 
endeavor  to  reduce  the  varied  and  peculiar  facts 
to  something  like  an  orderly  system  and  give  a 
reasonable  justification  for  their  position.  Per- 


the;  fauna  of  Madagascar.  345 

haps  the  theory  which  has  held  the  longest  place 
in  the  acceptance  of  the  scientific  world  has  been 
the  one  started  by.  Dr.  Sclater,  the  secretary  of 
the  Zoological  Society  of  London.  He  accounted 
for  the  similarity  between  the  Malagasy  fauna 
and  that  of  the  southeast  of  Asia  by  supposing 
that  a  continent  had  existed  uniting  the  two,  but 
had  since  become  submerged.  And  many  natu- 
ralists have  spoken  of  his  Lemuria  as  though  it 
wTas  an  established  fact,  requiring  no  further  proof 
or  discussion.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  this, 
in  the  face  of  the  results  of  the  nautical  expedi- 
tions for  scientific  purposes,  which  go  to  prove 
that,  notwithstanding  the  existence  of  the  L,acca- 
dive  and  Maldive  islands,  Mauritius  and  Bour- 
bon, there  is  no  internal  evidence  in  the  Indian 
Ocean  to  give  any  color  to  the  theory.  The  bed 
of  the  Indian  Ocean  is  known  to  be  of  extreme 
depth  except  around  the  islands;  while  there  is 
abundance  of  evidence  to  warrant  the  supposition 
that  Madagascar  may  have  been  connected  with 
Africa  physically.  Numbers  of  islands  dot  the  sea 
on  the  west,  and  the  Mozambique  Channel  is  re- 
markably shallow. 

The  last  and  greatest  writer  on  this  subject, 
Mr.  A.  Wallace,  is  the  only  one  who  has  advanced 
a  theory  which  appears  to  be  supported  by  the  facts 
of  geology  and  physical  geography.    His  idea  is 


346  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

that  Madagascar  was  never  connected  with  Asia 
by  a  submerged  continent,  which  he  not  only 
proves  conclusively  could  have  had  no  existence, 
but  he  shows  also  that  had  such  a  land  connected 
the  two  continents  of  Asia  and  Africa,  it  would 
have  prevented  the  survival  of  those  problems  of 
zoology  for  which  the  theory  was  supposed  to 
account.  As  he  says,  "The  alleged  continental 
extensions,  had  they  existed,  would  have  left  no 
such  fact  to  be  explained. ' '  Then,  again,  there  are 
abundant  evidences  to  show  that  Madagascar  was 
at  a  remote  period  smaller  than  it  is  at  present. 
Fossils  found  by  the  Rev.  J.  Richardson  in  the 
southwest,  considerably  inland,  belong  to  the 
Secondary  period.  But  at  the  same  time  Mada- 
gascar is  surrounded  by  a  coral  reef  extending 
almost  continuously  for  over  400  miles  along  the 
cast  coast,  and  in  broken  patches  along  the  north 
and  west  coasts.  This,  according  to  the  theory  of 
Mr.  Darwin  and  other  eminent  scientific  men,  is  a 
sure  sign  that  the  land  is  sinking  and  was  at  some 
former  period  larger  than  it  is  at  present.  These 
facts — of  the  increase  of  the  island  at  one  period, 
its  partial  subsidence  at  another,  taken  into  con- 
junction with  a  probable  connection  with  Africa 
by  an  isthmus  across  the  Mozambique  Channel — 
give  some  idea  of  the  difficulty  as  well  as  the 
interest  attaching  to  the  special  fauna  and  flora  of 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR. 


347 


the  island.  To  again  quote  from  Wallace,  "The 
problem  presented  by  these  ancient  islands  is  of- 
ten complicated  by  the  changes  which  they  them- 
selves have  undergone  since  the  period  of  their 
separation.  A  partial  subsidence  will  have  led 
to  the  extinction  of  some  of  the  types  that  were 
originally  preserved,  and  may  leave  the  ancient 
fauna  in  a  very  fragmentary  state;  while  subse- 
quent elevations  may  have  brought  it  so  near  to 
the  continent  that  some  immigration  even  of 
mammalia  may  have  taken  place.  If  these  ele- 
vations and  subsidences  occurred  several  times 
over,  though  never  to  such  an  extent  as  again  to 
unite  the  island  to  the  continent,  it  is  evident 
that  a  very  complex  result  might  be  produced; 
for  besides  the  relics  of  the  ancient  fauna,  we 
might  have  successive  immigrations  from  sur- 
rounding lands,  reaching  down  to  the  era  of  exist- 
ing species.' 1 

At  one  time  it  was  thought,  notwithstanding 
the  mythical  tales  told  in  the  works  of  early  wri- 
ters in  Madagascar,  relating  the  existence  of  enor- 
mous birds,  tigers,  elephants,  etc.,  that  none  of 
the  large  mammalia  so  common  in  Africa  had 
ever  lived  in  the  island.  But  beside  the  bones 
and  eggs  of  the  enormous  iEpyornis  found  in  the 
southwest  by  many  travellers  and  collectors,  M. 
Grandidier  describes  the  fossil  remains  of  a  hip- 


348  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

popotamus  whicli  he  discovered  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  island.  A  few  years  since  the  inde- 
fatigable German  traveller,  Dr.  Hildebrandt,  un- 
earthed several  skeletons,  more  or  less  perfect,  in 
a  semi-fossil  state,  from  the  limestone  beds  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  Vakinankaratra  district,  about 
60  or  80  miles  south  of  the  capital.  From  those 
I  had  the  opportunity  of  examining,  the  animal 
appears  to  have  been  about  four  feet  high  and 
seven  or  eight  feet  long,  the  head  being  eighteen 
inches  from  snout  to  juncture  with  the  neck. 
This  animal  is  now,  as  far  as  we  know,  extinct 
in  Madagascar,  but  it  doubtless  points  to  the  ori- 
gin of  the  ancient  native  names  of  the  island, 
' '  Nosbi-dambo, ' '  or  Island  of  Boars,  and  they  were 
at  one  time  probably  very  numerous. 

Mr.  Wallace  accounts  for  the  peculiarly  spe- 
cialised character  of  the  fauna  and  flora  of  Mad- 
agascar by  first  showing  that  many  of  these  forms 
were  in  remote  periods  of  almost  world-wide  dis- 
tribution, as  proved  by  their  fossil  remains  in  the 
Tertiary  formations.  Then  he  submits  as  a  theory 
that  the  ancient  islands,  such  as  Madagascar,  long 
since  entirely  isolated,  are  just  the  spot  in  which 
the  ancient  forms  would  u survive,"  because  not 
pressed  upon  by  other  and  more  energetic  forms 
and  species,  which  have  in  course  of  time  oblite- 
rated them  from  the  continents.  This  is  certainly 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  349 

a  far  more  feasible  and  acceptable  way  of  account- 
ing for  the  hitherto  unexplained  phenomena  than 
the  cumbrous  and  far-fetched  supposition  of  a 
submerged  continent,  and  certainly  more  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  o-eologfical  facts. 

One  fact  which  strikes  every  traveller  in  Mad- 
agascar is  the  lack  of  animal  life.  Passing 
through  the  forest  scarcely  a  creature  is  to  be  seen. 
It  is  only  by  waiting,  watching,  and  searching 
that  the  patient  collector  is  rewarded.  Of  the  few 
families  of  mammalia  found,  the  most  peculiar, 
as  well  as  the  most  abundant  and  widely  diffused 
throughout  the  island,  is  the  Lemuridse.  These 
include  some  six  genera  and  thirty-three  species: 
that  is  to  say,  very  nearly  half  the  number  of  the 
known  species  of  the  island.  Some  of  these  le- 
murs are  of  large  size,  standing  (in  the  hind  hands) 
three  feet  six,  or  four  feet,  such  as  the  Indris 
and  the  Black  Lemur  of  the  Betsileo ;  while  others, 
such  as  the  Microcebus  Smithii,  are  not  more 
than  four  inches  from  snout  to  root  of  tail.  They, 
generally  speaking,  inhabit  the  forest  region, 
wdiere  their  piercing  cries  or  long,  mournful  wails 
can  be  heard  for  miles  in  the  otherwise  quiet  and 
apparently  lifeless  solitude.  As  the  various  species 
are  unlike  in  appearance  and  size,  so  they  are  un- 
like in  habits.  Some  are  diurnal,  others  noctur- 
nal, of  every  shade  of  color,  from  the  purest  white 


350  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

to  the  intensest  black.  Some  feed  entirely  upon 
fruits  and  berries;  others  enjoy,  if  they  do  not 
wholly  subsist  on,  insects,  spiders,  beetles,  and 
moths.  Some  have  long  bushy  tails;  others 
smooth  round  ones;  others  have  no  tails  at  all. 
Some  have  long  claws;  others  have  smooth,  soft, 
flat  hands.  Some  are  gentle,  easily  trained,  and 
used  as  pets  by  the  people;  while  others  are  sav- 
age, repulsive,  and  very  difficult  indeed  to  tame. 

Of  those  which  have  come  more  directly  under 
my  observations,  having  been  kept  in  confine- 
ment and  their  habits  noted,  the  following  may 
be  described,  as  showing  the  very  various  and 
distinct  character  of  the  animals  belonging  to  the 
L,emuridae. 

One  of  the  prettiest  as  well  as  the  gentlest  is 
the  ring- tailed  lemur  (L.  catta,  L.).  As  far  as 
my  experience  goes,  these  are  only  found  in  the 
south  and  southwestern  borders  of  the  Betsileo. 
This  province  is  about  150  miles  in  length  by  50 
or  60  in  width,  and  is  situated  on  the  central  table- 
land, about  100  to  250  miles  south  of  the  capital. 
A  forest  extends  along  the  whole  eastern  side  of 
this  province,  fringing  the  table-land  and  cover- 
ing all  the  slopes  down  into  the  lowland  border- 
ing the  sea;  but  nowhere  in  these  forests  have 
the  ring-tailed  lemurs  been  found,  although  H. 
Schlegel  says,  "This  species  inhabits  the  forest  in 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  351 

the  southeast  of  Madagascar,  and  has  never  been 
observed  in  any  other  part  of  the  island."*  Their 
habitat  is  among  the  rocks,  over  which  they 
easily  travel,  but  where  it  is  impossible  for  the 
people,  though  bare-footed,  to  follow.  An  ex- 
amination of  their  hands  shows  that  they  are  pre- 
eminently adapted  for  this  kind  of  locomotion. 
The  palms  are  long,  smooth,  level,  and  leather- 
like, and  enable  the  animals  to  find  a  firm  foot- 
ing on  the  slippery,  wet  rocks,  very  much  on  the 
same  principle  as  that  which  assists  the  fly  to 
walk  up  a  pane  of  glass.  The  thumbs  on  the 
hinder  hands  are  very  much  smaller  in  propor- 
tion than  in  the  lemurs  inhabiting  the  forests,  and 
which  depend  upon  their  grasping  power  for 
their  means  of  progression.  These  spring  from 
tree  to  tree,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  touch  the  ground, 
except  in  search  of  water. 

Hence  the  ring-tailed  lemurs  are  an  excep- 
tion to  the  general  habits  of  the  Lemuridae, 
in  that  they  are  not  arboreal.  There  are  very 
few  trees  near  their  district,  and  those  which  do 
grow  are  very  stunted  and  bushy. 

These  lemurs  are  provided  with  two  long  ca- 
nine teeth  or  fangs  in  the  upper  jaw,  those  of  the 
male  being  considerably  longer  than  those  of  the 
female.    These  they  use  to  tear  away  the  outer 

*  "  Recherches  sur  la  Faune  de  Madagascar." 


352  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

coating  of  the  fruit  of  the  prickly  pear,  which  is 
full  of  fine  spines,  and  constitutes  their  chief  arti- 
cle of  winter  food,  and  which  grows  abundantly 
in  the  crevices  and  around  the  foot  of  the  rocks. 
Their  summer  food  consists  of  different  kinds  of 
wild  figs  and  bananas.  Their  fangs  are  doubtless 
used  as  weapons  of  self-defence,  although  when 
fighting  I  have  noticed  that  they  depend  a  great 
deal  upon  their  hands,  with  which  they  strike 
and  scratch.  I  have  seen  the  male  put  a  dog  lar- 
ger than  itself  to  the  rout  in  this  way. 

In  captivity  they  will  eat  almost  any  kind  of 
fruit,  but  do  not  like  meat  in  any  form.  Mr.  Ba- 
ron, however,  says  they  are  very  fond  of  spiders. 
By  a  little  care  they  can  be  induced  to  feed  upon 
cooked  rice,  upon  which  they  thrive.  In  their 
natural  state  they  do  not  drink,  as  is  proved  not 
only  from  the  native  accounts,  but  also  by  the 
fact  that  for  the  first  month  or  two  after  being 
caught,  and  while  living  on  bananas,  they  do  not 
drink.  It  is  curious  that  all  those  living  on  the 
west,  including  the  two  species  of  white  lemurs, 
appear  to  subsist  without  water,  while  all  those 
on  the  east  invariably  drink  at  their  meals. 

Another  interesting  species  is  the  broad-nosed 
lemur  (Hapalemur  simus,  Gray).  It  lives  in  the 
higher  level  forests  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Bet- 
sileo,  among  the  bamboos,  on  which  it  appears  in 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  353 

great  measure  to  subsist.    Its  teeth  are  different 
from  those  of  any  other  kind  of  lemur  with  which 
I  am  acquainted.    It  has  the  few  sharp  outwardly 
inclined  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw  in  the  front,  in 
common  with  all  lemurs,  and  which  they  use  as 
scrapers,  and  not  to  bite  with.    Beside  these,  near- 
ly all  its  teeth  are  serrated  cutting-teeth,  and  are 
arranged,  not  in  opposition,  but  so  as  mutually 
to  intersect.    In  this  respect  it  is  admirably  ac- 
commodated to  suit  the  country  in  which  it  lives, 
as  with  the  greatest  facility  it  can  bite  off  the 
young  shoots  of  the  bamboo,  and  mince  up  a 
whole  handful  of  grass-blades  and  stalks  at  once, 
each  bite  cutting  clean,  like  a  pair  of  scissors. 
Like  very  many  grass-eating  animals,  it  seems 
to  feed  all  day  long.    For  several  months  I  had 
one  fastened  on  the  lawn,  and  it  scarcely  ceased 
gathering  the  grass  within  its  reach  and  eating  it 
from  morning  till  evening.     It  is  also  unlike 
other  lemurs  in  its  dislike  of  fruit.    I  have  tempted 
it  with  very  many  kinds  of  berries  and  fruits 
growing  in  the  forest,  but  it  would  not  touch  any 
of  them.    It  is  very  fond  of  cooked  meat  and  also 
of  sugar-cane.    It  is  furnished  with  a  remarkably 
broad  pad  on  each  of  the  hinder  thumbs,  by  means 
of  which  it  is  enabled  to  grasp  firmly  even  the 
smoothest  surfaces.    Unlike  most  other  lemurs, 
its  head  is  round,  although  the  female  has  a 


354  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

somewhat  more  pointed  snout  than  the  male. 
Its  cry  is  peculiar,  at  times  resembling  the  quack 
of  the  duck,  at  other  times  loud  and  piercing. 
Its  tail  is  long,  but  not  bushy.  It  uses  it  as  the 
Iyemur  catta  does,  to  curl  round  its  neck  for 
warmth. 

In  1878  I  brought  to  England  a  specimen  of 
the  brown-mouse  lemur,  probably  the  Cheiroga- 
leus  milii,  which  is  still  living  in  the  Zoologi- 
cal Society's  Gardens  in  Regent's  Park.  It  was 
caught  in  1877  in  the  northeast  of  the  Betsileo. 
It  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  and  its  food  consists 
of  fruit,  and  possibly  honey,  of  which  there  is 
abundance  in  that  part  of  the  forest.  The  speci- 
men is  full-grown,  about  7  or  8  inches  long,  and  has 
a  pointed  snout,  very  prominent  eyes,  large  ears, 
and  a  round,  rat-like  tail,  which  is  not  prehensile. 
It  is  of  a  brownish-gray  color,  approaching  to 
white  on  the  under  parts.  Its  four  legs  are  almost 
equal  in  length,  thus  rendering  it  difficult  for  this 
lemur  to  leap  any  considerable  distance,  as  the 
majority  of  species  can.  It  runs  on  all  fours, 
but  sits  up  to  eat,  holding  its  food  in  the  fore- 
hands. I  fancy  that  in  the  winter  months,  in  its 
natural  state,  it  hibernates,  because,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  winter,  after  several  nights'  good  exer- 
cise, during  which  time  it  had  the  opportunity 
of  eating  as  much  banana  as  it  chose  to  take,  I 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  355 

was  astonished  one  evening,  on  opening  the  box, 
to  find  it  still  asleep  and  quite  cold  to  the  touch. 
At  first  I  thought  it  was  dead;  but  by  holding  it 
near  the  fire  and  rubbing  it,  it  gradually  awoke, 
and  when  thoroughly  warmed  appeared  none  the 
worse  in  health.  This  happened  two  or  three 
times,  and  without  any  apparent  cause,  as  there 
was  no  ill-health,  nor  was  the  weather  particular- 
ly cold.  From  this  fact,  and  from  the  unnatural 
development  of  fat  every  year,  even  in  captivity, 
I  presume,  had  it  been  in  its  native  forest,  it 
would,  under  the  circumstances,  have  slept  through 
the  winter.  It  makes  a  nest  of  leaves  or  dry  grass 
by  carefully  scooping  a  hollow  large  enough  to 
contain  itself,  and  then,  after  getting  in,  cover- 
ing itself  with  the  loose  leaves  or  grass.  The  na- 
tives say  that  it  buries  itself  in  hollow  trees  dur- 
ing the  winter. 

It  appears  to  be  a  very  uncommon  animal  even 
in  Madagascar,  as  this  is  the  only  specimen  I 
have  been  able  to  obtain,  although  I  kept  a  man 
in  the  forest  for  two  months  seeking  for  one  after 
I  had  obtained  the  one  I  have  described.  Of 
course  the  fact  of  their  sleeping  all  day  and  only 
feeding  at  night  adds  to  the  difficulty  of  catching 
them. 

Another  species  of  nocturnal  lemur,  interest- 
ing from  its  diminutive  size,  is  the  Microcebus 

Madagascar  ami  France.  0  T 


356  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

Smithii,  already  referred  to.  These  live  in  the 
tops  of  the  highest  trees,  invariably  choosing 
the  smallest  branches,  where  they  collect  a  quan- 
tity of  dried  leaves,  and  make  what  from  below 
looks  like  a  bird's  nest.  Their  food  consists  of 
fruit,  insects,  and  honey.  Moths  and  butterflies 
they  devour  with  great  avidity. 

They  are  extremely  shy  and  wild.  Although 
I  have  had  between  thirty  and  forty  caged  at 
different  times,  I  have  never  succeeded  in  ta- 
ming one.  They  are  also  very  quarrelsome,  and 
fight  fiercely,  uttering  a  most  piercing,  pentrating 
sound,  somewhat  resembling  a  very  shrill  whis- 
tle. 

The  teeth  are  very  minute,  but  exceedingly 
sharp,  and  when  they  bite  they  hold  so  tenacious- 
ly that  it  requires  a  good  shake  and  knock  to 
make  them  let  go.  They  are  very  strong  in  their 
hind  legs  and  hands.  I  have  often  seen  them 
swing  themselves  down  from  their  perch,  holding 
by  the  hind  hands,  grasp  their  food  in  the  fore 
hands,  and  then  gradually  draw  themselves  back 
again.  In  this  they  are  assisted  by  their  tails 
only  as  a  balance,  and  not  as  an  additional  grasp- 
ing member.  Their  eyes  are  large  and  brilliant, 
their  ears  large,  and  their  hands  beautifully  per- 
fect, with  ordinary-sized  nails  on  each  finger,  ex- 
cept the  second  of  the  hind  hands,  which  is  fur- 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  357 

nislied  with  a  long  scratching  claw.  They  bring 
forth  two  and  sometimes  three  at  a  birth. 

Some  of  the  inhabitants  in  Madagascar  eat 
the  lemur's  flesh;  but,  with  the  exception  of  one 
commonly  known  as  the  babacota  (or  babacoot), 
the  meat  is  very  coarse  and  strong. 

Closely  allied  to  the  lemurs  is  another  quad- 
rumanous  animal  belonging  to  a  family  of  which 
it  is  the  only  representative,  and  which  is  pecu- 
liar to  Madagascar.  This  curious  animal,  the 
Aye-aye  (Cheiromys  Madagascariensis),  has  evi- 
dently received  its  popular  name  from  the  ex- 
clamations of  the  people  who  first  saw  it.  They 
would  upon  first  sight  of  anything  so  peculiar 
naturally  utter  the  usual  Malagasy  exclamation 
of  surprise,  1  'Hay!  Hay!"  And  at  the  present 
time  among  the  people  it  is  called  the  Haihay. 

The  Rev.  R.  Baron,  however,  supposes  the 
name  to  be  onomatopcetic,  "the  creature's  call 
being,  Haihay!  Haihay!"  But  though  I  have 
kept  them  many  months  in  captivity,  the  only 
cry  I  have  heard  from  them  resembles  the  bark 
or  snapping  yelp  of  a  dog.  It  is  found  in  the 
forests  west  and  north  of  Tamatave.  Being  a 
nocturnal  animal,  it  is  very  difficult  to  get  any 
reliable  information  concerning  its  habits  in  a 
wild  state,  and  native  reports  are  altogether  con- 
tradictory with  respect  to  these  matters.  Even 


358  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

with  reference  to  its  natural  food  no  satisfactory  ex- 
planation can  be  obtained  from  the  people.  Many 
assert  positively  that  it  lives  on  honey;  but  one  I 
had  in  captivity  for  several  months  would  not  eat 
honey  in  any  form,  either  strained  or  in  the  comb, 
or  mixed  with  various  things  I  thought  it  might 
have  a  fancy  for.  Others  say  it  lives  on  fruits 
and  leaves;  others,  that  birds  and  eggs  are  its 
natural  food.  I  fancy,  from  what  I  saw  of  one  of 
my  captives,  that  the  latter  conjectures  are  nearer 
the  truth ;  for  after  a  few  days,  during  which  it 
would  eat  nothing,  and  it  was  thought  that  the 
proper  food  had  not  been  offered  (but  it  was  in 
reality  pining  or  sulking),  it  took  several  fruits 
which  I  was  able  to  procure  for  it.  It  liked  ba- 
nanas; but  it  made  sorry  efforts  at  eating  them, 
its  teeth  being  so  placed  that  its  mouth  was  fre- 
quently clogged  with  them.  The  small  fruits 
of  various  native  shrubs  it  also  devoured,  as  also 
rice  boiled  in  milk  and  sweetened  with  sugar; 
but  meat,  larvae,  moths,  beetles,  and  eggs  it  would 
not  touch.  I  noticed  that  when  I  came  near  its 
cage  with  a  light,  it  almost  invariably  started,  and 
went  for  a  little  distance  in  chase  of  the  shadows 
cast  by  the  pieces  of  banana  attached  to  the  wire- 
work  in  front  of  its  cage;  and  I  think  that  if  I 
could  have  procured  some  small  birds  it  would 
have,  if  not  devoured  them,  at  any  rate  killed 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR. 


359 


them  for  their  blood,  as  some  lemurs  are  known 
to  do.  *  It  drank  water  occasionally,  but  in  such 
a  way  as  to  make  it  highly  probable  that  it  does 
not  drink  from  streams  or  pools  in  the  ordinary 
way.  It  did  not  hold  its  food  in  its  hands,  as  the 
lemurs  which  I  have  had  in  captivity  have  done, 
but  merely  used  its  hands  to  steady  it  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cage.  But  whenever  it  had  eaten,  al- 
though it  did  not  always  clean  its  hands,  it  in- 
variably drew  each  of  its  long  claws  through  its 
mouth,  as  though  in  its  natural  state  these  had 
taken  a  chief  part  in  procuring  the  food. 

In  some  accounts,  given  by  different  writers, 
the  Aye-aye  is  said  to  be  easily  tamed  and  to  be 
inoffensive.  For  instance,  Sonnerat,  who  kept  two 
in  captivity,  described  it  as  "timid,  inoffensive, 
and  slow  in  its  movements,  in  these  respects  re- 
sembling the  lories."  In  each  of  these  qualities, 
except  the  "  timidity, "  I  have  found,  both  from 
native  accounts  and  from  the  specimens  I  have 
kept,  that  exactly  the  reverse  is  the  case.  As 
might  be  imagined  in  a  nocturnal  animal,  its 

*  In  proof  of  this,  I  need  only  instance  one  fact  seen  by  sever- 
al persons.  A  vessel  under  Captain  Larsen  was  sailing  along  the 
coast  between  Tamatave  and  Imahanoro,  when,  after  a  stormy 
morning,  two  land  birds,  which  had  apparently  been  driven  from 
shore  and  were  exhausted,  settled  in  the  afternoon  on  one  of  the 
yards.  A  tame  lemur  (Lemur  albifrons)  on  board  saw  the  birds 
alight,  and  crept  up  to  them,  seizing  and  killing  them  immedi- 
ately, but,  after  sucking  the  blood,  let  them  fall  upon  the  deck. 


360  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

movements  in  the  daytime  are  slow  and  uncer- 
tain; and  it  may  be  said  to  be  "  inoffensive " 
then. 

When  it  bit  at  the  wire  netting  in  the  front  of 
its  cage,  I  noticed  that  each  of  the  pairs  of  inci- 
sors in  either  jaw  could  separate  sufficiently  to  ad- 
mit the  thick  wire  even  down  to  the  gum,  the  tips 
of  the  teeth  then  standing  a  considerable  distance 
apart,  leading  to  the  supposition  that  by  some  ar- 
rangement of  the  sockets  of  the  teeth  they  could 
be  moved  so  far  without  breaking  off.  This  would 
facilitate  the  animal  in  tearing  off  the  bark  of 
trees  in  search  for  the  larvae  which  some  assert 
to  be  its  chief  food.  The  Aye-aye  brings  forth 
but  one  at  a  birth.  It  makes  its  nest  in  the 
hollows  of  trees,  and  sometimes  in  the  upper 
branches  among  the  dense  foliage.  This  con- 
sists of  leaves,  grass,  and  twigs,  and  is  about  two 
feet  in  width. 

It  is  no  wonder  that  in  connection  with  so 
curious  an  animal  a  number  of  superstitious  be- 
liefs should  be  current  among  the  Betsimisaraka, 
in  whose  country  the  Aye-aye  is  principally  found. 
In  reference  to  its  name,  one  account  says  that 
the  first  discoverers  took  it  from  one  part  of  the 
island  to  another,  the  inhabitants  of  which  had 
never  seen  it,  and  in  their  surprise  they  exclaimed, 
"Hay!  Hay!  "    Another  tale  is  that  many  years 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  361 

ago  some  Betsimisaraka  had  occasion  to  open  an 
old  tomb,  in  which  had  been  buried  one  of  their 
ancestors.  No  sooner  was  the  tomb  opened  than 
this  animal,  into  which  the  said  ancestor  had  de- 
veloped, sprang  out,  and  hence  the  exclamation 
of  surprise  that  has  attached  itself  as  a  name  to 
this  creature.  Many  of  the  Betsimisaraka  still 
believe  that  the  Aye-aye  is  the  embodiment  of 
their  forefathers,  and  hence  will  not  touch  it, 
much  less  do  it  an  injury.  It  is  said  that  when 
one  is  discovered  dead  in  the  forest,  these  people 
make  a  tomb  for  it  and  bury  it  with  all  the  for- 
mality of  a  funeral.  They  think  that  if  they  at- 
tempt to  catch  it  they  will  surely  die  in  conse- 
quence, and  when  I  have  said  to  them,  "But 
there  is  So-and-so,  who  has  brought  several  to 
Tamatave,  and  nothing  has  happened  to  him,n 
the  answer  has  been,  u  Yes,  but  he  has  its  charm !" 
(that  is,  the  charm  which  counteracts  the  evil 
consequences  of  the  act).  The  superstition  extends 
even  to  the  nest  which  the  animal  makes  for  it- 
self. If  a  man  receives  from  another  or  picks  up 
accidentally  the  portion  on  which  the  head  of  the 
Aye-aye  has  rested,  it  is  sure  to  bring  good  for- 
tune; while  the  receiving  of  that  part  on  which 
its  feet  rested  is  followed  by  bad  luck  or  death. 
This  has  passed  into  a  proverb  among  the  Bet- 
simisaraka. 


362  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

The  above  are  the  only  species  of  quadruma- 
nous  animals  found  in  the  island.  The  apes  and 
monkeys  so  common  in  the  neighboring  conti- 
nent are  altogether  unrepresented,  while  the  only 
approach  to  representatives  of  the  above  in  Africa 
are  the  Galagos,  on  the  east  and  south  centre,  and 
the  Potto  and  Augwantibo,  found  on  the  west 
coast. 

There  are  but  few  carnivorous  animals  in  Mad- 
agascar, and  those  of  small  size  and  very  timid. 
The  largest  is  the  Pintsala,  said  to  have  been 
much  more  common  than  at  present.  Now  it  is 
only  found  in  the  western  forests,  where  it  is  oc- 
casionally trapped  by  the  Sakalava  and  Western 
Ibara.  The  only  one  I  have  seen  alive  was  about 
the  size  of  a  full-grown  pointer,  of  a  dun  color, 
low  on  the  shoulders  and  high  on  the  haunches. 
It  has  a  long  smooth  tail,  short  snout,  keen  eyes, 
and  powerful  legs.  This  specimen  was  kept  in 
an  iron  cage,  from  which  it  once  or  twice  managed 
to  escape,  when  it  exhibited  its  ferocity  and 
strength  on  the  unfortunate  dog  and  pigs  in  the 
yard,  some  of  which  it  speedily  killed.  The  na- 
tives are  terribly  afraid  of  it,  doubtless  not  only 
because  it  steals  their  fowls,  goats,  and  sheep,  but 
also  from  a  superstitious  dread  of  an  animal  with 
which  a  number  of  legends  and  fables  are  con- 
nected.   It  belongs  to  the  genus  Cryptoprocta,  is 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  363 

a  plantigrade  animal,  with  five  toes  on  each  foot, 
and  furnished  with  retractile  claws. 

The  Fosa,  an  animal  belonging  to  the  family 
Viverridse,  is  another  well-known  carnivorous 
animal.  It  is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  above, 
has  a  bushy  tail,  and  is  sometimes  called  the  Mad- 
agascar fox.  It  is  of  a  brownish-gray  color,  spot- 
ted with  tufts  of  darker-colored  hair.  There  are 
two  species,  and  they  are  to  be  met  with  in  wide- 
ly separated  districts,  but  always  in  forest  coun- 
try, where  they  feed  upon  poultry  and  wild  fowl. 

In  the  forests  of  the  southeast  I  have  frequently 
secured  an  animal  belonging  to  the  same  family, 
which,  although  not  a  true  civet,  is  closely  allied. 
It  is  doubtless  a  genett,  and  approaches  very  near 
to  Genetta  aner.  It  inhabits  the  low  lands,  and 
feeds  upon  lizards,  rats,  mice,  voatsiva,  etc.  It 
is  prettily  marked,  is  said  to  be  untameable,  and 
is  very  strong-smelling. 

Another  carnivorous  animal  caught  in  the 
same  district  is  a  species  of  ichneumon,  of  a 
brown  color,  with  very  thick  skin,  long  sharp 
claws,  thick  though  not  bushy  tail,  and  having  a 
long  sharp  snout.  It  is  very  quick  in  its  move- 
ments, lives  upon  snakes,  lizards,  and  birds.  The 
Tanala  people  say  that  it  is  a  great  enemy  to  their 
poultry,  and  is  often  trapped  near  the  hen-roosts. 
There  is  no  doubt  too  that,  as  in  other  parts 


364  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

of  the  world,  this  animal  feeds  upon  crocodiles* 
eggs,  and  is  supplied  with  some  of  its  food  in 
Madagascar  from  this  source.  This  is  the  same 
creature  which  in  Egypt  is  misnamed  Pharaoh's 
rat. 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  among 
naturalists  regarding  the  existence  of  the  wildcat 
as  an  indigenous  animal  in  Madagascar.  Those 
that  have  come  under  my  notice  differ  in  the  form 
of  the  tail  from  those  we  look  upon  as  types  of  this 
genus.  Most  probably  the  animals  spoken  of  by 
the  natives  as  Kary  are  either  the  descendants  of 
the  domestic  cat  run  wild,  or  else  belong  to  one 
or  other  of  the  varieties  of  genetts. 

Belonging  to  the  family  Talpidse  we  have 
one  genus  peculiar  to  Madagascar,  the  Centetes, 
of  which  there  are  nine  species  in  the  island. 
Some  inhabit  the  prairies  and  forest  borders  on 
the  upper  table-land,  others  the  bushy  parts  of 
the  coast.  The  latter  are  much  larger  than  the 
former,  and  are  considered  a  very  dainty  dish  when 
properly  prepared,  both  by  the  natives  and  the 
French  Creoles,  who  liken  the  flavor  to  that  of  a 
tender  sucking-pig.  Their  food  consists  of  beetles 
chiefly,  but  frogs  also  are  devoured  by  them.  Two 
or  three  species  are  wholly  nocturnal.  The  larger 
varieties  are  a  dun-brown  color,  covered  over  the 
back  with  spines,  but  with  soft  hair  and  of  a 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  365 

lighter  color  on  the  under  parts.  When  attacked, 
they  roll  themselves  up  hedgehog- fashion,  but  only 
one  or  two  varieties  succeed  in  rolling  themselves 
into  a  complete  ball.  Round  Tamatave  they  are 
very  plentiful,  and  I  have  frequently  found  them  in 
the  house.  They  are  occasionally  kept  and  fattened 
by  the  natives  for  sale  in  the  market,  and  a  good- 
sized  Trandraka,  measuring  ten  or  twelve  inches 
in  length,  will  fetch  a  good  price. 

Several  species  of  Cheiroptera  are  found,  ran- 
ging from  the  small  mouse-like  creature  which 
so  frequently  flies  in  at  the  open  window  after 
sundown,  to  the  large  vampire,  or  flying  fox,  in- 
habiting some  of  the  islands  on  the  east  coast 
and  one  or  two  wooded  districts  in  the  interior. 
But  none  are  said  to  be  peculiar  to  Madagascar, 
all  conforming  to  the  characteristics  of  the  genera 
found  in  many  other  parts  of  the  world. 

Of  the  domestic  animals,  it  is  now  generally 
admitted  that  none  are  indigenous  to  Madagascar. 
Horses  are  plentiful  in  the  interior,  where  they 
are  used  by  the  chief  military  and  civil  officers 
for  riding,  but  they  are  descendants  of  those 
brought  from  the  Cape  and  Arabia.  The  bullock, 
resembling  Bos  indicus,  although  met  with  in 
large  herds  in  the  northwest  forests,  has  doubt- 
less been  introduced.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
the  fat-tailed  hairy  sheep,  which  is  never  found 


366  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

wild,  the  goat,  pig,  and  dog.  There  is  a  wild  boar 
inhabiting  the  eastern  forests,  the  Potamochoerus, 
which  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  river- 
hog  of  Southern  Africa.  It  is  stated  that  the 
Portuguese  in  one  of  their  early  voyages  let  loose 
a  large  herd  of  swine  on  the  island ;  but  this  will 
not  account  for  the  existence  here  of  the  only  un- 
gulata  which  appears  indigenous  to  Madagascar. 
Mr.  Wallace  accounts  for  it  by  assuming  that  the 
known  extraordinary  powers  of  swimming  pos- 
sessed by  this  river-hog  have  enabled  it  to  immi- 
grate "at  a  later  period  than  in  the  case  of  the 
other  mammalia. ' '  The  specimens  I  have  seen 
have  all  been  high  on  the  shoulders,  with  plenty 
of  reddish-brown  hair  and  bristles,  a  very  long 
snout,  having  a  peculiar  protuberance  about  half 
way  between  the  eyes  and  the  nostrils.  The  flesh 
is  hard,  but  not  very  rank  in  flavor.  The  natives 
catch  them  in  pits,  carefully  concealed  by  rushes, 
on  which  is  lightly  sprinkled  earth  and  a  little 
rice  as  bait.  The  bottom  of  the  pit  is  provided 
with  hard  spiked  sticks,  on  which  the  animal 
falls,  and  is  killed  or  disabled. 

Madagascar  may  be  said  to  be  the  home  of 
some  species  of  reptiles.  There  are  at  present 
between  fifty  and  sixty  species  of  chameleons 
known  to  science,  out  of  which  number  between 
twenty  and  thirty  are  peculiar  to  Madagascar. 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  367 

These  are  of  every  variety  of  color,  and  many  of 
most  peculiar  shape.  Some  have  excrescences  un- 
der the  lower  jaw,  others  triangular  prominences 
over  the  eyes.  Some  have  the  muzzle  elongated 
like  a  horn;  others  have  this  divided  into  two 
such  horns.  Some  have  a  kind  of  flexible  pro- 
boscis; others  have  the  head  flattened  and  ex- 
tended on  each  side.  Some  have  a  rugged  and 
high  dorsal  crest;  others  have  but  a  low  crest,  ceas- 
ing altogether  about  half  way  between  the  head 
and  tail.  Some  are  very  large,  sixteen  or  seven- 
teen inches  long;  while  others  measure  only  five 
inches  when  full  grown. 

Except  the  chameleon,  all  the  Lacertidae  are 
small,  but  many  of  them  most  brilliantly  col- 
ored and  beautifully  marked.  All  are  perfectly 
harmless,  and  the  gecko  is  most  useful.  It  in- 
habits the  houses,  and  is  the  destroyer  of  the  cen- 
tipedes, spiders,  and  moths.  It  can  run  along  the 
ceilings  and  over  the  window-panes  with  the 
greatest  ease,  seldom  losing  its  footing  or  falling. 
It  is  provided  with  little  sucker-like  expansions 
on  each  toe,  from  beneath  which  it  has  the  power 
of  pressing  out  the  air,  and  thus  enabling  it  to 
walk  downwards  without  danger. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  snakes  in  the  island, 
of  every  color  and  size,  from  the  small  whip-snakes 
to  the  large  pythons,  measuring  nine  or  ten  feet 


368  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

in  length,  and  as  thick  round  as  a  man's  leg. 
Many  kill  their  prey  by  entangling  it  in  their  folds 
and  squeezing  it  to  death,  but  some  seize  their 
prey  with  their  teeth  and  so  kill  it.  None,  I  be- 
lieve, are  fatally  venomous,  and  none  that  I  have 
seen  and  examined  have  any  long  fangs,  hol- 
low, and  provided  with  a  poison  pouch  below 
them,  as  with  the  Australian  and  African  snakes. 
Nevertheless  there  are  some  which,  according  to 
native  accounts,  inflict  painful  wounds  with  their 
teeth.  The  bite  of  one  found  on  the  east  coast, 
and  called  by  the  people  Mantagory,  causes  great 
pain  and  swelling:  but,  although  greatly  feared 
by  the  natives,  there  is  no  tradition  of  any  one 
having  been  killed  by  a  snake. 

Living  in  the  crevices  of  rocks  in  the  interior 
is  one  species  of  Orphidse,  called  by  the  natives 
the  Dona,  beautifully  marked  with  an  irregu- 
lar yellow  stripe  on  each  side  of  the  body,  dark 
bluish-black  on  the  back,  and  a  light  gray  on  the 
under  parts.  It  is  about  five  feet  long  when  full 
grown.  It  feeds  upon  frogs  and  lizards,  and  is 
said  by  the  people  to  occasionally  attack  and  de- 
vour fowls  and  ducks. 

This  snake  is  looked  upon  by  the  heathen  of 
the  Betsileo  with  great  superstitious  reverence,  as 
the  impersonation  of  their  dead  ancestors,  whose 
souls  upon  the  death  of  the  body  have  passed  into 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  369 

these  creatures.  When  one  is  discovered  by  the 
people,  the  chiefs  of  the  various  tribes  around  as- 
semble near  it  and  proceed  to  ascertain  whose 
ancestor  is  here  embodied.  This  is  done  by  a  series 
of  questions  that  can  be  answered  by  Yes!  or  No! 
The  animal  is  attentively  watched  meanwhile, 
and  when  the  motion  of  its  head  is  supposed  to 
indicate  the  affirmative  to  the  question,  "Are  you 
the  ancestor  of  such-and-such  a  chief?"  it  then 
becomes  the  duty  of  that  chief  to  conduct  the 
proper  ceremonies.  A  bullock  is  killed,  and  some 
of  the  blood  is  given  to  the  creature  as  a  kind  of 
offering,  to  propitiate  it  and  secure  its  good  offices 
for  the  future;  and  it  is  then  enticed  or  gently 
induced  to  wriggle  itself  into  the  centre  of  a  clean 
white  "lamba"  that  is  brought  and  spread  before 
it.  When  it  is  in  the  "lamba,"  four  men  take 
the  corners  and  carry  it,  amid  cries  from  the  peo- 
ple of  the  chiefs  village  and  the  incantations  of 
the  priests,  towards  the  river  or  stream  at  the  foot 
of  the  village.  After  various  forms  prescribed  by 
the  diviners,  the  animal  is  placed  in  the  water, 
and  the  people  return  home  to  finish  the  day  in 
riotous  feasting. 

It  is  no  uncommon  thing,  in  the  south-central 
part  of  the  island,  to  find  in  the  lowest  chamber 
of  the  ant-hills  one  of  the  light-colored  snakes  that 
abound  on  the  prairie-land.    Whether  the  crea- 


370  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

ture  creeps  in  at  the  entrance,  and  makes  its  way 
into  the  warm  and  dry  spot  to  sleep  off  the  effects 
of  its  last  meal,  or  whether  it  is  a  nursling  of  the 
ants,  has  at  present  not  been  satisfactorily  proved. 
I  can  only  witness  to  having  discovered  them  in 
such  a  place;  but  it  would  be  difficult  without 
keeping  constant  watch  to  ascertain  whether  the 
snake  has  free  ingress  and  egress  from  what  the 
natives  say  is  its  prison.  The  tradition  of  the 
people  is  that  the  ants  keep  the  snake  as  a  cap- 
tive, providing  it  with  plenty  of  food,  until  it  is 
fat  and  in  good  condition,  when  they  kill  and  eat 
it.  There  is  however,  a  great  difference  of  opin- 
ion as  to  how  the  snake  first  gets  there.  Some 
think  that  it  is  carried  there  when  quite  small; 
others  that  these  sagacious  ants  make  regular 
snake- traps  in  the  lower  part  of  their  nests,  which 
are  two  or  three  feet  high,  from  which,  though 
easy  to  enter,  it  is  impossible  for  the  snakes  to 
escape.  When  it  is  remembered  that  the  ants 
take  care  of  and  feed  the  aphides  for  the  sake  of 
the  sweet  honey-like  exudation  from  their  bodies, 
one  is  led  to  give  some  credence  to  a  statement  so 
universally  accepted  by  the  natives. 

Frogs  of  many  species  are  found  in  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  island,  varying  in  size  from  the 
great  bullfrog,  which  by  its  horrible  croak  makes 
night  hideous  in  the  swampy  lowlands,  to  the 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  371 

beautifully -colored  and  elegantly -shaped  tree- 
frogs  found  in  all  the  forest  lands,  supplying 
abundance  of  food  for  the  snakes  and  birds,  who 
greatly  depend  on  them  for  their  subsistence. 
The  latter  are  of  every  variety  of  color,  and  ap- 
pear to  mimic  the  prevailing  color  and  shade  of 
green  of  the  tree  or  leaves  upon  which  it  lives. 
In  this  way  it  is  to  a  certain  extent  protected 
from  the  observation  of  its  enemies  at  the  same 
time  that  it  is  enabled  to  approach  the  insects 
upon  which  it  lives  with  comparative  ease. 

M.  Grandidier  discovered  the  half-fossilized  re- 
mains of  two  species  of  tortoises  of  gigantic  size, 
identical  with  those  found  in  the  desolate  Alda- 
bra  group  of  islands  in  latitude  8°  south;  and  al- 
though usually  accepted  as  an  extinct  animal  in 
Madagascar,  it  is  reported  by  the  natives  to  still 
live  in  the  forest  land  on  the  west.  One  was  kept 
in  a  garden  in  Tamatave  two  years  ago,  which 
was  said  to  have  been  brought  from  the  west 
coast,  measuring  over  four  feet  in  length,  with- 
out the  head  and  neck,  and  somewhat  broader. 
This  was  smaller  than  those  from  the  Aldabra, 
in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  one  of  which  was 
nearly  six  feet  broad,  weighed  over  eight  hundred 
pounds,  and  was  able,  it  is  said,  to  carry  a  couple 
of  tons  on  its  back. 

Numberless  small  tortoises  are  found  in  all 
22 


372  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

parts  of  the  island,  among  them  the  Pyxis,  or 
geometric  tortoise,  which  is  frequently  kept  by 
the  natives  as  a  kind  of  domestic  pet.  It  is  very 
beautifully  and  regularly  marked. 

A  curious  feature  of  the  avi-fauna  of  Madagas- 
car is  its  peculiarly  distinctive  character,  for,  not- 
withstanding the  apparent  evidence  of  a  connec- 
tion at  a  very  remote  period  of  the  island  with 
Africa  geographically,  yet  Mr.  Wallace  has  iden- 
tified but  twelve  species  represented  in  the  adja- 
cent continents,  and  those  "belong  to  the  power- 
ful-winged or  wide-ranging  forms. ' '  Mr.  Baker, 
in  his  paper  read  before  the  British  Association 
in  York,  1881,  goes  farther,  and  says  that  "up- 
wards of  one  hundred  species  of  land  birds  have 
been  determined  scientifically,  and  of  these  not 
more  than  half  a  dozen  are  known  elsewhere.' 1 
There  are  at  present  112  species  and  219  varieties, 
belonging  to  88  genera,  of  which  33  are  peculiar 
to  Madagascar,  while  over  50  species  are  endemic, 
but  belonging  to  African  and  Asiatic  genera. 

The  bones  of  an  enormous  bird,  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  the  island  less  than  200  years  ago, 
were  found  by  M.  Grandidier  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  island.  He  formed  a  skeleton  from  the 
materials  at  hand,  and  by  deductions  therefrom 
we  get  the  representation  of  a  bird  considerably 
larger,  but  of  the  height  of  an  ostrich.    This  is 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  373 

doubtless,  the  rukh,  referred  to  by  Marco  Polo  in 
the  account  of  his  voyages.  Grave  doubts  have 
long  been  cast  upon  that  traveller's  veracity  re- 
garding this  matter;  and  his  gigantic  bird  had 
been  classed  with  the  Arabian  roc  as  equally  of 
imaginative  origin.  Other  remains  have  since 
been  found,  and  Prof.  Owen  supposes  the  iEpyor- 
nis  to  have  been  a  struthious  or  terrestrial  bird 
of  the  same  genus  as  the  Dinornis  of  New  Zea- 
land. Many  travellers  have  worked  hard  to  dis- 
cover a  complete  skeleton,  but  hitherto  nothing 
has  been  found  but  a  few  bones  and  the  eggs. 
Many  of  the  latter  are  more  or  less  broken ;  some 
when  discovered  were  being  used  as  water-pitchers 
by  the  natives;  but  some  have  been  found  entire. 
One  that  I  saw  in  the  possession  of  a  merchant  in 
Bourbon  was  without  the  least  flaw  and  sixteen 
inches  in  length.  Whatever  may  have  been  the 
actual  size  and  appearance  of  the  iEpyornis,  its 
eggs  are  most  gigantic. 

It  is  no  wonder,  with  such  facts  to  help  them, 
old  and  superstitious  voyagers  should  be  willing 
to  credit  tales  like  that  of  Marco  Polo's  rukh. 
"It  is  said  that  in  those  other  islands  to  the 
south,  which  the  ships  are  unable  to  visit  because 
the  strong  current  prevents  their  return,  is  found 
the  bird  gryphon,  which  appears  there  at  certain 
seasons.    The  description  given  of  it  is,  however, 


374  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

entirely  different  from  what  our  stones  and  pic- 
tures make  it.  For  persons  who  had  been  there 
and  seen  it  told  Messer  Marco  Polo  that  it  was  for 
all  the  world  like  an  eagle,  but  one  indeed  of  enor- 
mous size,  so  big,  in  fact,  that  its  wings  covered 
an  extent  of  thirty  paces,  and  its  quills  were 
twelve  paces  long  and  thick  in  proportion.  And 
it  is  so  strong  that  it  will  seize  an  elephant  in  its 
talons  and  carry  him  high  into  the  air,  and  drop 
him  so  that  he  is  smashed  to  pieces.  Having 
so  killed  him,  the  bird  gryphon  swoops  down 
upon  him  and  eats  him  at  leisure.  The  people 
of  those  isles  call  the  bird  rue;  and  it  has  no  other 
name.  So  I  wot  not  if  this  be  the  real  gryphon, 
or  if  there  be  another  manner  of  bird  as  great. 
But  this  I  can  tell  you  for  certain,  that  they  are 
not  half  lion  and  half  bird,  as  our  stories  do  re- 
late; but  enormous  though  they  be,  they  are  fash- 
ioned just  like  an  eagle. n* 

Tales  very  similar  to  the  above  are  told  by 
the  Hindoos,  Persians,  and  Arabs,  and  are  evi- 
dently all  manufactured  from  the  same  source. 
Fra  Mauro  also  gives  the  account  of  an  Indian 
junk  being  drifted  in  1420  to  a  coast  on  which 
was  found  "  the  egg  of  a  certain  bird  called 
Chrocho,  which  egg  was  as  big  as  a  butt.  And 

*  "  The  Book  of  Ser  Marco  Polo,  the  Venetian."  London,  1871. 
Edited  and  annotated  by  Col.  H.  Yule,  C.  B. 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  37^ 

the  bigness  of  the  bird  is  such  that  between  the 
extremities  of  the  wings  it  is  said  to  be  sixty 
paces.  They  say,  too,  that  it  carries  away  an 
elephant  or  other  great  animal  with  the  greatest 
ease,  and  does  great  injury  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the  country  and  is  most  rapid  in  its  flight." 

It  must  not  be  supposed  from  the  above  that, 
although  the  stories  are  inadmissible  because  of 
their  extravagance,  they  still  furnish  an  indirect 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  elephants  in  Mad- 
agascar. No  proof  to  support  such  a  supposition 
has  yet  been  found. 

Of  the  birds  now  found  in  the  island,  it  must 
suffice  to  mention  but  a  few  of  the  most  strikingly 
peculiar.  The  Raptores,  although  numerous,  are 
not  composed  of  many  species.  An  eagle  (Hali- 
etes  vociferoides)  is  called  by  the  Sakalava  the 
hanka,  and  is  found  only  in  the  northern  portion 
of  the  island,  while  numerous  species  of  hawks 
are  found  in  widely  different  districts.  One  of 
these,  the  Falco  minor,  called  by  the  Hovas  the 
voromahery,  or  the  strong  bird,  has  been  adopted 
as  the  crest  of  the  Hova  Government.  An  enor- 
mous effigy  of  the  voromahery  is  placed  in  the 
centre  of  the  roof  of  the  principal  palace  and  over 
the  gateway  to  the  royal  precincts  in  Antanana- 
rivo. The  commonest  carnivorous  bird  in  the 
interior  of  the  country  is  the  papango  (Milvus 


376  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

iEgyptius,  Gm.),  a  kite  much  hated  by  the  peo- 
ple because  of  its  depredations  upon  the  poultry 
yard.  It  frequently  carries  of!  chickens,  fowls, 
ducks,  and  when  very  hungry  does  not  hesitate 
to  attack,  and  attempt  to  carry  off,  small  dogs. 
They  are  very  tenacious  of  life,  and  have  been 
known  to  fly  considerable  distances  after  being 
mortally  wounded.  They  occupy  the  same  roost- 
ing-place  night  after  night  on  the  highest  branch- 
es of  the  trees.    There  are  two  varieties. 

A  small  and  very  active  sparrow-hawk,  the 
Tinnunculus  Newtonii  (Gurn),  is  also  very  numer- 
ous in  the  centre  and  east  of  the  island,  and  its 
peculiar  hovering  motion,  while  apparently  sus- 
pended in  mid-air  seeking  its  prey,  has  given  the 
name  of  one  of  the  figures  in  the  native  dance, 
when  the  hands  are  employed  to  represent  the 
quick,  nervous  motion  of  the  bird's  wings.  It 
builds  its  nest  in  the  roofs  of  houses,  and  it  is 
frequently  seen  perched  on  the  highest  points 
of  the  spires  of  the  churches  and  other  elevated 
spots,  from  which  it  makes  a  swoop  upon  any 
luckless  lizard  or  snake  that  may  unsuspiciously 
expose  itself. 

Unlike  the  English  crow,  the  Malagasy  rep- 
resentative of  the  species  is  not  so  perfectly 
black  as  to  give  point  to  a  proverb.  The  Cor- 
vus  scapulatus  has  a  band  of  white  round  its 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  377 

neck  and  a  bib  on  its  breast,  in  this  resembling 
the  chaplain  crow.  It  is  found  in  all  parts  of 
the  island,  making  its  nest  in  high  trees  or  in 
crevices  of  rocks  on  the  mountain-sides.  Mr. 
Baron  says  that  it  is  "sometimes  kept  by  the 
people  as  a  pet  bird.  Occasionally  it  is  taught 
to  keep  fowls  away  from  the  rice  which  is  put 
out  on  mats  to  dry  in  the  sun. ' ' 

Among  the  Passeres  are  none  very  remarkable 
for  musical  capabilities,  although  one  or  two  ex- 
hibit a  certain  amount  of  variety  in  their  note. 
The  railovy  of  the  Hovas,  the  Dicrurus  forficatus 
of  naturalists,  a  blue  blackbird  of  the  size  of  the 
English  blackbird,  but  having  a  tuft  of  feathers 
standing  erect  from  the  junction  of  the  upper 
mandible  with  the  skin,  is  a  very  fair  singer.  It 
is  called  in  some  parts  of  the  country  the  "prince 
of  birds,"  because  it  is  said  to  imitate  or  possess 
the  notes  of  all  the  other  birds  put  together.  It 
inhabits  the  forest,  but  is  not  unfrequently  found 
in  rarely- visited  spots  on  the  table-land  far  from 
the  forest  district. 

The  fody  of  the  Hovas  is  a  very  conspicuous 
object,  in  the  pairing  and  breeding  season,  near 
all  the  inhabited  regions.  It  has  given  its  name 
to  a  distinct  genus  (Foudia  Madagascariensis),  and 
is  the  typical  bird  of  the  genus.  In  the  breeding 
season  the  male  is  of  a  brilliant  scarlet,  except  the 


37^  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

wings  and  tail,  which  retain  the  sober  dun  color. 
The  female,  doubtless  in  order  that  she  may  re- 
main less  conspicuous  to  her  enemies,  continues 
her  sombre  dress  throughout  the  year.  The  male 
also  gradually  loses  all  his  gaudiness  as  the  cooler 
weather  comes  on,  and  until  the  breeding  season 
returns  there  is  very  little  to  distinguish  him  from 
his  mate.  The  male  has  a  song  nearly  as  mu- 
sical as  our  robin.  The  fody  is  a  terrible  pest 
to  the  natives  in  harvest-time,  and  boys  with 
slings  and  rattles  have  to  be  employed  to  prevent 
the  rice  being  devoured  by  the  flocks  of  these 
birds,  which  congregate  near  the  ripening  grain 
and  devour  considerable  quantities,  unless  pre- 
vented by  the  people.  It  is  one  of  the  birds  kept 
in  captivity  by  the  natives,  who  make  cages  for 
them  from  thin  strips  of  bamboo.  But  they 
neither  breed  nor  live  long  in  confinement,  and 
the  practice  is  generally  discountenanced  by  the 
more  humane. 

Another  of  the  weaver-finches,  resembling  the 
above  in  shape  though  not  in  color,  is,  as  its 
name  proves,  recognized  by  the  people  as  belong- 
ing to  the  same  species.  They  call  it  Fody  saina, 
doubtless  because  of  the  clever  way  it  builds  its 
nest,  hanging  it  from  the  end  of  a  small  supple 
branch,  weaving  grass  and  fibres  into  a  compact, 
hollow,  retort-shaped  dwelling.    These  are  con- 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  379 

spicuous  objects  in  the  southeastern  forests,  be- 
cause they  are  usually  so  placed  that  they  hang 
below  the  mass  of  the  foliage,  by  a  strong  fibre  at- 
tached to  the  crown  (comparing  it  to  a  retort) ;  the 
bird  enters  by  the  lower  end,  climbing  up  inside. 
The  eggs  are  laid  and  the  young  hatched  in  the 
globe  of  the  retort,  and  are  thus  rendered  inaccessi- 
ble to  the  depredations  of  other  birds  or  of  lizards, 
snakes,  lemurs,  etc.  The  male  is  yellow  with  a 
jet-black  beak.  It  is  the  Hyphantornis  pensilis 
of  the  naturalists,  and  sometimes  called  the  wea- 
ver-bird, as  its  nest  displays  so  much  more  skill 
in  its  construction  than  any  of  the  other  weaver- 
finches,  beside  presenting  a  very  much  larger  wo- 
ven surface. 

The  commonest  parrot  in  the  island  is  a  black 
one  (Coracopsis  nigra,  L.)«  It  is  found  in  great 
numbers  in  all  the  forests,  especially  in  those  on 
the  west  of  the  table-land.  The  people  tame  it, 
and,  after  slitting  its  tongue,  teach  it  to  say  a  few 
words;  but  it  is  not  an  adept  scholar,  and  I  have 
never  heard  one  which  could  do  more  than  pro- 
nounce very  indifferently  isolated  words.  Very 
different  in  size,  as  also  in  plumage,  is  the  little 
green  and  dove-colored  paroquet  which  frequents 
in  large  flocks  the  rice-fields  near  the  coast  and 
sometimes  appears  on  the  upland  plains.  It  is  a 
species  of  the  love  bird  (Psittacula  canna)  and  is 


380  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


caught  and  kept  by  the  natives  in  cages.  They 
live  chiefly  on  rice,  and  are  great  enemies  to  the 
growers,  for  they  do  not  appear  singly,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  fody,  but  in  large  flocks  several 
hundreds  strong. 

The  aquatic  birds  are  very  numerous  in  Mad- 
agascar and  several  different  genera  are  repre- 
sented. These  we  can  but  touch  upon,  mention- 
ing only  a  few.  In  travelling  in  the  Betsileo  and 
along  the  east  coast,  I  have  often  been  struck 
with  the  variety  of  bird-life  near  the  lakes  and 
rivers — some  on  the  water,  others  hovering  over 
it  waiting  for  their  prey,  some  wading  in  the 
shallows,  or  stalking  along  from  one  lily  leaf  to 
another,  assisted  by  their  large  and  wide-spread- 
ing feet.  There  are  the  large  moskovy  ducks 
(Sarcidiornis  Africana)  frequenting  the  inland 
marshes  of  the  central  and  south  central  provin- 
ces, with  the  duck  (Anas  Melleri)  and  little  grebe 
(Podiceps  minor)  on  almost  every  rushy  stream, 
furnishing  abundant  sport  for  the  sportsman  and 
good  food  for  his  bearers.  The  wild  ducks  are 
not  in  the  least  fishy  in  flavor,  but  rich  and 
gamey,  proving  quite  an  addition  to  the  not  re- 
markably varied  character  of  the  dishes  procura- 
ble in  the  island.  There  is  also  a  beautiful  water- 
hen,  with  black  plumage  but  scarlet  head,  which 
enjoys  the  home  of  the  above,  although  not  their 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  381 

distinction  at  the  table  of  the  foreigner.  It  is 
called  the  otrika*  by  the  people.  There  are  three 
or  four  kinds  of  ibis  found  in  the  island,  the  crested 
variety  being  peculiar  to  the  country.  It  is  found 
in  the  northeast,  and  is  there  fairly  abundant.  It 
is  scarlet  on  the  body,  with  long  legs,  yellow  beak 
and  claws.  The  so-called  sacred  ibis  of  Egypt  is 
found  in  large  flocks.  A  white  egret  is  a  very 
common  gregarious  bird,  living  near  the  rice- 
fields,  about  which  it  walks  in  search  of  food,  or  it 
follows  closely  after  the  herds  of  cattle,  which 
attract  the  insects  that  to  a  great  extent  consti- 
tute its  food.  This  is  the  Ardea  bubulcus,  and 
is  fiequently  accompanied  by  the  Platalea  tenui- 
rostris,  which  in  the  distance  very  much  resem- 
bles it  in  plumage  and  shape  of  body;  and  it  is 
not  until  a  nearer  view  can  be  obtained  or  the 
beak  is  turned  towards  the  observer  that  the  spoon- 
shaped  bill  is  seen  which  so  clearly  distinguishes 
it  from  its  companions.  The  takatra  (Scopus 
umbretta)  is  another  bird  very  widely  diffused 
throughout  the  highlands,  but  rarely,  if  ever,  seen 
near  the  coast.  It  is  a  brown-crested  stork,  around 
which,  doubtless  from  its  homely  appearance,  its 
strange  cry  and  ragged,  untidy  nest,  have  col- 
lected many  superstitions.  One  says  that  those 
who  destroy  its  nest  become  lepers.    Another  says 

*  Canirallus  griseifrons  (Gray). 


382  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

that  if  the  bird  takes  the  hair  of  any  person  from 
whose  head  it  has  just  been  cut,  and  uses  it  as 
material  in  making  its  nest,  such  person  becomes 
at  once  bald.  It  used  also  to  be  regarded  as  an 
evil  omen  for  this  bird  to  cross  a  person's  path,  and 
if  it  crossed  the  path  before  the  idols,  these  were 
obliged  to  return  to  their  houses.*  The  nest  is  a 
very  inaccessible  one,  built  for  the  most  part  on 
an  overhanging  rock  or  in  the  fork  of  a  large  tree, 
with  the  entrance  hole  in  the  side,  most  difficult 
of  approach. 

Guinea-fowl,  snipe,  teal,  and  quails  are  abun- 
dant in  some  districts  at  a  distance  from  human 
habitation,  and  resemble  in  a  great  measure  their 
namesakes  in  England. 

The  avi-fauna  of  Madagascar  is  remarkable  as 
showing  so  little  affinity  to  that  of  the  peculiar 
type  met  with  in  tropical  Africa.  As  Mr.  Wal- 
lace points  out,  the  glossy  starlings,  the  plantain- 
eaters,  ox-peckers,  barbets,  honey-guides,  horn- 
bills,  and  bustards  are  entirely  wanting  in  Mada- 
gascar, while  many  of  the  species  found  are  pecu- 
liar to  the  island. 

The  insect  life  of  the  island  is  prolific,  special- 
ized, and  often  very  beautiful.  Among  the  Lep- 
idoptera  are  some  magnificent  specimens  of  gor- 
geous coloring  and  variety  of  form.    The  most 

*  Rev.  R.  Baron  in  "Antananarivo  Annual,"  No.  5,  p.  55. 


THK  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  383 

remarkable  is  one  that  has  frequently  been  de- 
scribed, the  Urania  riphaeus;  that  is  found  princi- 
pally in  the  upper  part  of  the  eastern  forest  belt; 
its  darling  mixture  of  blue,  green,  gold,  and  red 
renders  it  a  conspicuous  object  as  it  flies  lazily 
across  one's  path.  Very  many  of  the  butterflies 
are  more  remarkable  for  their  peculiar  shape  than 
for  their  beauty  of  coloring,  imitating  the  dead 
leaves  to  such  a  nicety  as  to  deceive  the  casual 
observer.  They  close  their  wings  against  each 
other,  and  one  fancies  he  can  see  the  midrib  and 
veining  of  a  dried  leaf  standing  up  from  the  dead 
branch,  in  color  dark  brown  slightly  mottled  with 
black,  while  the  upper  side  of  the  wing  presents 
a  bright  and  gaudy  coloring.  In  the  interior  the 
butterfly  called  by  the  natives  the  lime-tree  butter- 
fly, a  large  yellow  and  black  variety,  is  a  very 
common  object  as  it  flutters  about  through  the 
lime  and  lemon  trees  seeking  suitable  spots  to 
deposit  its  eggs.  In  some  places  in  the  forest  the 
small  streams  seem  to  be  literally  alive  with  but- 
terfly and  moth  life.  There  are  also  several  very 
large  nocturnal  moths.  One  found  on  the  east 
coast  is  six  or  seven  inches  across  the  spread  of 
the  wings,  of  a  light  pinkish  drab  color,  with  little 
square  transparent  spots  on  each  wing.  One  found 
on  the  west  coast  measures  eight  and  a  half  inches 
from  shoulder  to  point  of  tail  and  eight  inches 


384  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

across  the  upper  wings.  "But  its  most  extraor- 
dinary characteristic  is  the  formation  of  the  long, 
delicate  tail-like  appendages  to  the  hind  wings, 
which  have  extremely  narrow  shafts  and  are  en- 
larged at  the  ends;  their  points  have  two  spiral 
twists  or  folds,  graceful  in  appearance.  •  There  are 
four  distinct  eye-like  spots  near  the  centre  of  each 
wing  which  are  of  light  buff  tinged  with  lemon- 
yellow.  The  buff-colored  body  is  two  and  a  quar- 
ter inches  long.  It  is  proposed  to  be  called  Tro- 
psea  Madagascariensis. ' '  * 

Among  the  spiders  are  some  very  curious  spe- 
cimens of  insect  life.  The  largest,  the  Hala-be  of 
the  people  and  Epura  Madagascariensis  of  the 
naturalists,  is  one  of  the  largest  known.  It  is 
black,  with  four  or  five  yellow  bands  on  its  back, 
and  in  size  more  resembles  a  young  crab  than  the 
usual  inhabitant  of  an  aerial  nest  acting  as  guard- 
house to  a  web,  the  main  fibres  of  which  are  as 
strong  as  pack-thread.  The  natives,  in  their  su- 
perstitious dread  of  anything  so  ugly  and  large, 
have  endowed  it  with  powers  which  it  is  doubtful 
if  it  possesses.  They  assert  that  it  is  poisonous, 
and  that  those  bitten  by  it  are  immediately  seized 
with  an  intense  nervous  excitement  that  often 
ends  in  death.  This,  however,  must  be  accepted 
with  caution,  notwithstanding  that  M.  Leguevel, 

*  "  Proceedings  of  Zoological  Society,"  1873,  p.  336. 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  385 

in  his  "  Voyage  a  Madagascar,"  speaks  of  a  young 
slave  who  accompanied  him  being  bitten  by  one 
of  these  spiders,  and  undergoing  a  nervous  tor- 
ture ending  in  death  the  next  day.  It  is  not  un- 
likely that  the  slave  was  suffering  from  the  fever 
of  the  country,  and,  even  if  he  were  bitten,  it  was 
the  former  that  caused  his  death,  and  not  the 
venom  from  the  insect.  He  says  that  the  slave 
was  seized  by  a  nervous  trembling,  which  so  in- 
creased upon  him  as  to  require  two  men  to  hold 
him  and  place  him  in  the  bath  which  the  native 
doctor  prescribed;  that  his  tongue  was  dry  and 
his  eyes  inflamed,  and  it  was  with  difficulty  that 
he  could  be  induced  to  swallow  a  few  mouthfuls 
of  the  infusion  of  an  aromatic  plant.  After  his 
bath  he  was  placed  on  a  mat;  but  the  skin  re- 
mained dry  and  hot,  notwithstanding  the  tem- 
perature of  the  bath.  Faintness  gave  place  to 
syncope,  the  extremities  became  cold,  and  a  con- 
vulsive twitching  showed  that  the  end  was  ap- 
proaching. The  next  day  he  died.  All  familiar 
with  the  symptoms  of  the  fever,  as  it  attacks  some 
individuals,  will  recognize  here  the  usual  course 
of  that  disease  when  in  its  malignant  form.  There 
is,  however,  a  small  black  spider  with  red  under 
parts,  called  the  Hala-mena-vody  by  the  Mal- 
agasy, or  Latrodicus  menavodi  by  Vinson,  which 
certainly  has  the  power  of  inflicting  a  very  pain- 


386  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

ful  wound,  and  although  not  fatal,  its  bite  produces 
serious  effects  upon  the  system.  There  are  a  large 
variety  of  trap-door  spiders  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  and  several  hunting-spiders,  which  have 
wonderfully  mimicked  the  prevailing  color  of  the 
rocks  upon  which  they  live.  These  depend  for 
their  food  upon  their  own  agility,  and  are  pro- 
vided with  strong,  supple  legs,  to  enable  them  to 
run  with  great  rapidity  and  spring  considerable 
distances  while  in  pursuit  of  their  prey.  But 
another  genus  makes  a  most  ingenious  trap  for 
ants  and  wood-lice  by  throwing  up  the  loose  sand 
in  which  it  lives  so  as  to  form  a  cup-like  hollow. 
At  the  bottom  of  this  it  lies  concealed,  waiting 
for  any  luckless  ant  that  may  fall  into  the  trap, 
from  which  it  seldom  escapes,  because  the  sides 
of  the  hollow  are  composed  of  such  loose  sand  that 
no  foothold  can  be  found,  and  the  disturbance 
caused  only  helps  to  attract  the  enemy  and  con- 
fuse the  victim.  These  cups  are  about  three 
inches  in  diameter  at  the  top  and  one  and  a  half 
inches  deep,  and  are  made  by  the  insect  work- 
ing in  a  small  circle  just  under  the  surface 
and  throwing  up  the  sand  from  the  centre  with 
a  twitch  of  the  tail,  which  is  half  the  length  of 
the  body.  So  strong  is  it  that  with  very  little 
difficulty  it  can  throw  out  any  substance  twice 
or  thrice  its  own  weight  to  a  distance  ten  or 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  387 


twelve  times  its  own  length.  These  nests  are 
always  made  under  cover  where  the  sand  is  light 
and  dry,  and  it  is  astonishing  how  quickly  these 
insects  will  repair  or  re-make  an  injured  or  de- 
molished trap.  I  have  kept  some  in  confinement, 
supplying  them  with  food  from  time  to  time,  and 
their  diligence  and  perseverance  might  point  as 
good  a  moral  as  those  qualities  in  the  ants  which 
they  prey  upon.  Another  curious  insect  associated 
with  sand  life  on  the  low-lying  plains  around  the 
coast  is  a  sand-fly,  about  the  size  of  a  wasp,  which 
alights  on  the  dry  sand,  and  almost  before  the 
spectator  has  had  time  to  concentrate  his  vision 
upon  the  spot  it  has  burrowed  for  itself  a  hole 
deep  enough  to  bury  itself,  by  using  its  legs  to 
scoop  up  the  sand  into  a  little  ball  against  its 
body,  and  then  carrying  it  out  backwards  and 
depositing  it  at  a  little  distance  from  the  hole.  In 
a  marvellously  short  time  it  has  made  a  home  for 
its  eggs  and  supplied  a  store  of  food  for  the  larvae 
when  hatched. 

Of  building  or  architectural  insects  there  are 
several  species  of  bees,  one  of  which  is  a  source 
of  wealth  to  the  Tanala  (the  inhabitants  of  the 
forest),  who  make  rough  hives  for  their  use  and 
then  stupefy  the  bees  and  secure  the  honey  and 
wax.  The  latter  is  an  article  of  considerable  im- 
portance in  commerce,  great  quantities  being  ex- 

Madagascar  aud  France.  n  -? 


388  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

ported  from  Tamatave.  Wasps  abound  in  all 
parts,  and  the  mason-fly,  the  pest  of  the  houses 
on  the  coast,  disfigures  every  ceiling  and  corner 
with  her  unsightly  though  cleverly-made  recep- 
tacle for  her  progeny  and  their  early  food,  in  the 
shape  of  spiders,  stupefied  and  inclosed  in  the 
earthen  cells  with  the  eggs.  The  ant-hills  cover 
the  plains,  in  some  districts  rising  to  the  height 
of  two,  three,  or  even  four  feet,  with  only  a 
few  yards  between  them.  A  deserted  ant-hill  is 
often  used  by  travellers  for  a  stove,  by  cutting  off 
the  top  and  scooping  out  the  inside,  thus  making  a 
kind  of  clay  furnace.  The  ants'  nests  in  the  forest 
are  conspicuous  objects,  being  attached  to  the  up- 
per parts  of  the  trunks  of  trees  like  great  excres- 
cences, and  having  a  well-made,  water-tight  tun- 
nel connecting  them  with  the  ground.  They  are 
evidently  constructed  for  security,  as  their  whitish 
color  would  render  them  particularly  liable  to  the 
depredations  of  the  birds  which  live  upon  such 
food.  I  have  frequently  broken  in  upon  this  tun- 
nel, to  find  that  it  is  in  constant  requisition  by 
travellers  up  and  down.  A  rupture  of  the  con- 
struction is  a  first  care  of  the  busy  inhabitants  of 
the  nest  above,  who  immediately  set  about  repair- 
ing any  such  defect  by  carrying  mud  up  the  inside 
and  cleverly  filling  in  once  more  their  covered 
way 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  389 

Among  the  Coleoptera  are  some  very  curious 
in  their  forms,  and  others  "remarkable  for  their 
wide-spread  affinities."  The  longicorns,  stag-bee- 
tles, burying-beetles,  rosechafers,  locusts,  etc. ,  are 
all  found  in  abundance  and  in  every  part  of  the 
island.  A  beetle  with  a  long  proboscis,  which  it 
uses  for  boring  into  the  bark  of  the  trees  in  search 
of  the  juice,  is  one  of  the  curious  forms  of  insect 
life  in  the  eastern  forests.  Another,  almost  iden- 
tical in  appearance  with  a  dried  piece  of  twig  as 
it  stands  on  a  branch  with  its  legs  drawn  up, 
hiding  its  head  between  the  foremost,  is  found  on 
the  upper  plateau.  The  Cicadse,  varying  in  length 
from  half  an  inch  to  two  inches,  make  the 
woods  and  forests  on  the  east  and  southeast  re- 
sound with  their  piercing,  scraping  sound.  Some 
are  gorgeous  in  bright  and  shining  metallic-look- 
ing wings,  while  others  so  closely  imitate  the 
color  and  veining  of  the  leaves  or  bark  upon 
which  they  feed  that  it  requires  sharp  eyes  to  de- 
tect them  as  they  lie  quiescent  while  the  enemy, 
in  the  form  of  a  collector,  passes.  Others,  again, 
protect  themselves  by  a  constant  emission  of  an 
offensive  odor,  which  they  are  able  to  intensify 
upon  being  touched  or  attacked.  There  is  an 
immense  variety  of  burying  and  scavenger  beetles, 
and  several  that  burrow  underground.  One  of 
the  latter,  black,  about  one  and  a  half  inches  long, 


390  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

and  with  a  long  horn  (in  the  male)  like  that  of  the 
rhinoceros,  is  a  great  enemy  to  young  cocoanut- 
trees  and  other  plants  with  a  bulbous  root. 

Of  the  fish  very  little  is  yet  known  scientifi- 
cally. There  is  the  usual  variety  of  fresh-water 
fish,  most  of  which  are  edible,  although  some  are 
not  held  in  very  great  esteem.  The  goldfish  is 
plentiful  in  the  rice-fields  in  Imerina,  but  it  is  an 
introduction  to  the  island.  A  few  were  taken  by 
one  of  the  French  residents  in  the  capital  as  a 
present  to  the  queen,  who  had  them  placed  in  the 
lake  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  on  which  the  city 
stands,  and  they  were  so  prolific  that  soon  the  lake 
was  well  stocked.  During  the  rainy  season  this 
lake  often  overflows  into  the  rice-plains  around. 
The  fish  have  thus  obtained  access  to  the  larger 
area,  and  have  increased  so  rapidly  that  now  the 
goldfish  is  the  commonest  and  cheapest  fish  sold 
in  the  Antananarivo  market.  Its  flesh,  however, 
is  by  no  means  well  flavored,  and  only  the  poorest 
of  the  people  buy  and  eat  them.  Eels  are  caught 
in  abundance,  being  of  large  size  in  many  of  the 
rivers  and  lakes,  and  are  highly  esteemed  by  the 
people,  who  are  willing  to  pay  a  higher  price  for 
these  than  for  any  other  fish  of  equal  weight. 
The  toho  and  shrimps  are  caught  by  the  women 
in  most  of  the  marshes,  rice-fields,  and  small 
streams  by  dredging  with  fine  net-like  baskets. 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  391 

They  are  dried  in  the  sun,  packed  into  mats,  and 
sent  to  the  various  markets,  where  some  of  these 
dried  uprey  from  the  waters''  always  form  one 
article  of  sale  or  barter.  The  fony  is  a  fish  much 
esteemed,  the  flesh  of  which  is  firm  and  sweet, 
and  is  usually  eaten  as  a  stew  by  the  natives. 

Two  kinds  of  crayfish  are  caught  in  the  rivers, 
one  with  thin  round  claws,  the  other  with  claws  re- 
sembling a  lobster's;  the  former  inhabiting  rocky 
river-beds,  and  the  latter  muddy  marsh-lands  and 
the  edges  of  larger  rivers.  Both  are  very  good 
eating,  and  are  relished  by  natives  and  Euro- 
peans. A  fresh- water  crab  is  also  found  in  the 
small  rapid  streams  passing  through  the  marshes, 
but  not  in  anything  like  the  abundance  of  the 
crayfish.  With  the  exception  of  the  above,  none 
of  the  fresh- water  shell-fish  are  used  as  food. 

In  the  lagoons  and  on  the  reefs  of  the  east 
coast  a  large  number  of  various  fishes  are  found. 
The  one  most  in  demand  is  called  the  zompona,  a 
fish  resembling  a  salmon  in  shape  and  habits,  but 
entirely  different  in  color  and  flavor.  It  spawns  up 
the  rivers,  and  is  caught  in  the  lagoons  or  river 
mouths  on  its  way  down  to  the  sea.  Many  fine- 
flavored  fish  are  caught  by  lines  or  spears  on  or 
near  the  reefs  at  Tamatave  and  in  the  shallows 
along  the  northeast  coast.  The  harbors  often 
present  a  very  lively  appearance  at  night  when 


392  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

the  canoes  go  out,  each  provided  with  its  torches 
and  lanterns.  The  light  attracts  the  fish,  which 
are  speared  as  they  play  round  the  bow  of  the 
canoes  with  a  kind  of  many-pronged  dart,  to  the 
haft  of  which  a  cord  is  attached.  Oysters,  lobsters, 
crayfish,  crabs,  mussels,  and  clams  are  found  along 
the  coast,  and  find  a  ready  sale  in  the  market  at 
Tamatave.  The  octopus  is  also  highly  esteemed 
as  an  article  of  diet  both  by  the  Creoles  and  the 
natives,  but  is  not  held  in  much  favor  by  the 
Europeans,  who  are  generally  too  much  disgusted 
with  the  appearance  of  the  fish,  as  exhibited  for 
sale  with  its  long  flabby  arms  and  ugly  head-body, 
to  care  to  make  any  closer  acquaintance  with  it. 

The  sharks,  which  abound  on  the  east  coast, 
and  make  such  extensive  depredations  upon  the 
cattle  in  course  of  shipment  on  board  the  vessels 
waiting  to  transport  them  to  Mauritius  and  Bour- 
bon, are  occasionally  captured  by  the  people. 
Notwithstanding  the  terror  in  which  they  hold 
them,  the  young  men  occasionally  go  on  a  shark- 
hunting  expedition.  Having  discovered  one,  they 
dive  under  it,  and  before  it  has  the  time  to  turn 
upon  its  back,  use  the  long  sharp  knife  they  carry 
to  such  good  purpose  that  before  it  has  realized 
its  danger  it  is  secured.  It  is  affirmed  among  the 
Malagasy  that  some  of  their  people  can  go  into 
the  water,  on  discovering  a  shark,  and  wTith  noth- 


THE  FAUNA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  393 

ing  in  hand  but  a  piece  of  stick  about  a  foot  in 
length,  armed  with  an  iron  point  at  each  end,  can 
accomplish  its  destruction.  Watching  till  one 
of  the  monsters,  with  its  two  or  three  rows  of 
teeth,  is  just  about  to  attack  him  with  its  wide- 
extended  jaws,  the  native  with  his  iron-pointed 
stick  seizes  his  opportunity,  and  with  a  coolness 
they  certainly  do  not  exhibit  on  shore  inserts  his 
hand  and  arm  into  the  mouth  of  the  creature,  and 
transfixes  its  jaws  by  implanting  the  stick  cross- 
wise in  its  mouth.  The  more  the  shark  tries  by 
snapping  to  disengage  the  weapon,  the  more 
deeply  it  enters,  and  in  savage  and  painful  fury 
it  seeks  the  bottom.  But  while  plunging  in  mad- 
dened terror  and  pain  it  fails  to  obtain  relief,  and 
is  at  last  completely  exhausted.  In  a  day  or  two 
its  body  is  washed  ashore,  and  the  inhabitants 
secure  and  divide  its  carcase  for  food.  I  have 
never  seen  this  feat  performed,  and  am  a  little 
doubtful  of  its  reality,  but  I  give  it  as  given  to 
me.  Whenever  a  shark  or  porpoise  is  secured,  its 
flesh  is  cut  into  joints  and  sold  in  the  market,  as 
any  other  commodity,  and  the  people  seem  eager 
to  obtain  a  portion  of  the  unsavory  and  highly- 
scented  flesh  of  the  tiger  of  the  sea. 


394  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR. 

The  Flora.  Much  Remains  Unarranged.  Flowering  Plants.  Affin- 
ity with  Flora  of  Mountains  in  Central  Africa.  Man-eating 
Tree.  Travellers'  Tree.  Rofia  Palm.  Other  Palms.  Cocoa- 
nut.  Filaos.  Mangroves.  Atafana.  Bamboos.  Reeds  and 
Rushes.  Creepers.  Pandanus  Sanga.  Orchids.  Timber 
Trees.  Food-providing  Flora.  Manioc.  Arrowroot.  Pota- 
toes. Yams.  Rice.  Rice-Cultivation;  as  an  Article  of  Com- 
merce. Coffees.  Spices.  Sugar-cane.  Rum.  Sugar-mills. 
Fruits.    One  or  Two  Curiosities  of  Plant-life. 

The  flora  of  the  island  is  scarcely  less  special- 
ized and  remarkable  than  the  fauna.  From  the 
time  that  Mr.  Ellis  first  called  attention  to  the 
interesting  subject  of  the  botany  of  Madagascar 
down  to  the  present  day,  the  botanist  and  plant- 
collector  have  found  a  paradise  in  the  unexplored, 
fertile,  and  luxuriant  forest  land  of  the  mountain- 
ous slopes  of  the  central  plateau.  To  the  eye  of 
the  mere  traveller  or  the  searcher  after  beauty 
this  tract  presents  spots  of  unrivalled  grandeur 
and  loveliness.  The  artist  is  bewildered  in  his 
endeavor  to  decide  upon  the  scenes  most  worthy 
of  his  attempt  to  represent  them  on  his  canvas, 
and  the  photographer  would  require  an  unlimited 
supply  of  dry  plates  if  he  aimed  at  obtaining  a 
negative  of  one-half  of  the  pretty  nooks,  grand 


THE  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  395 

cascades,  and  bold,  towering  rocks  and  mountains. 
Here  are  magnificent  giant  trees  of  hard,  dark- 
colored,  durable  building  wood,  that  have  stood 
the  storms  of  ages,  laced  together  with  enormous 
far-spreading  lians  and  creepers,  forming  a  mass 
of  wood  and  foliage  through  which  the  sunlight 
never  passes.  Below  is  a  mass  of  brushwood  and 
undergrowth  completely  barring  the  traveller  un- 
provided with  axe  or  knife,  while  under  foot  is  a 
soft  velvety  grass  richly  bespangled  with  wild 
flowers  of  every  color  and  hue. 

Very  much  remains  to  be  discovered  and  ar- 
ranged with  reference  to  the  flora  of  the  island, 
but  still,  thanks  to  the  indefatigable  energy  of 
such  botanists  as  Hildebrandt  and  Crossley,  the 
Rev.  R.  Baron  and  others,  a  great  deal  of  recent 
information  has  been  collected  respecting  the  veg- 
etable productions.  The  number  of  flowering 
plants  of  which  we  have  definite  information  and 
descriptions  now  amounts  to  between  2,000  and 
3,000,  and  every  parcel  coming  from  one  of  the 
hitherto  unexplored  districts  contains  a  large 
number  of  new  varieties  or  species.  So  that  Mr. 
Baker,  F.  R.  S.,  says  he  ''should  not  be  at  all 
surprised  if  the  number  of  flowering  plants  in- 
habiting the  island  should  ultimately  be  raised  to 
4,000  or  5,ooo.n 

Out  of  the  fifty-five  orders  of  Thalamiflorae 


396  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

there  have  been  thirty-seven  discovered  in  Mada- 
gascar, while  fifty-three  are  found  in  tropical 
Africa.  "  One  of  the  most  striking  and  sugges- 
tive characters  of  the  flora  of  the  intertropical 
zone  of  the  world,  taken  as  a  whole,  is  the  large 
extent  to  which  it  is  everywhere  made  up  of  spe- 
cies representing  large  genera  which  do  not  show 
any  special  preference  for  one  of  the  great  conti- 
nents, or  for  the  New  World  or  the  Old  World,  as 
compared  with  each  other.  The  area  embraced 
by  the  intertropical  zone  is  about  twenty  millions 
of  square  miles,  out  of  fifty  millions  for  the  whole 
world;  and  there  are  many  genera  that  contain 
300,  400,  or  500  species  that  are  largely  repre- 
sented in  America,  Asia,  and  Africa."*  Such, 
for  instance,  as  the  Cyperus,  the  Ferns,  Ficus, 
Piper,  Croton,  Loranthus,  Psychotria,  and  many 
others  are  widely  distributed  throughout  the  world, 
and  are  nearly  all  represented  in  Madagascar. 

Among  the  flowering  plants  indigenous  to 
Mauritius  about  150  are  found  in  Madagascar; 
but  these  are  of  so  cosmopolitan  a  character  that 
many  are  not  only  found  in  tropical  Africa,  but  ex- 
tend to  tropical  America.  The  greater  number  of 
these  cosmopolitan  plants  are  those  bearing  seeds 
very  easily  dispersed  and  carried  long  distances. 

*  J.  G.  Baker,  F.  R.  S.,  in  Paper  read  at  the  Meeting  of  the 
British  Association  of  York,  1881. 


THE  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  397 

They  are,  generally  speaking,  such  as  grow  in 
waste  ground,  on  the  seashore,  in  swamps,  and  a 
few  in  the  shadier  retreats  of  the  forests.  But  it 
has  been  noted,  by  those  who  have  made  the  sub- 
ject a  special  study,  that  there  is  a  far  greater 
resemblance  and  a  closer  affinity  between  those 
species  of  the  wide-spread  flora  represented  in 
Madagascar  and  Africa  than  between  those  in 
Madagascar  and  tropical  or  Southeastern  Asia. 
There  are  certainly  a  few  instances  of  species  oc- 
curring in  Madagascar  which  follow  the  Asiatic 
type,  and  which  are  not  found  in  Africa,  but 
these  bear  an  infinitesimal  proportion  to  the  whole 
of  the  flora.  Mr.  Baker  also  finds  that  there  is  a 
very  distinct  affinity  between  the  flora  of  the  ta- 
ble-land of  Madagascar  and  that  of  the  mountain 
ranges  in  Central  Africa  and  Cape  Colony.  Hence 
it  would  appear  that  whereas,  in  the  remote  past, 
the  general  characters  of  the  fauna  and  flora  of 
Madagascar  and  Africa  were  identical  or  very 
similar,  the  ancient  isolation  of  the  island  from 
the  mainland  has  enabled  it  to  retain  many  of  its 
forms  of  animal  life  which  have  been  pushed  out 
of  existence  in  Africa.  The  vegetable  life  has,  as 
is  natural  to  suppose,  maintained  many  of  its  an- 
cient characteristics  in  both  localities.  The  law 
of  natural  selection,  operating  powerfully  in  the 
one  case,  is  almost  unknown  in  the  other. 


398  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

Many  of  the  curiosities  of  vegetable  life  are 
found  in  the  island,  and  the  romance  of  the  early 
travellers  has  added  many  extraordinary  forms, 
unknown  except  in  the  imagination  of  the  writers. 
Such  is  the  man-eating  tree,  which  was  said  to  be 
able  to  entangle  in  its  fibrous,  tendril-like  leaves 
human  beings,  whom  it  crushed  to  death  and  de- 
voured. No  such  plant  exists,  but  it  is  doubtless 
the  romancers'  magnified  description  of  the  insec- 
tivorous plants,  which  are  not  uncommon. 

Among  the  trees,  that  which  is  both  peculiar 
to  the  island  and  a  marked  feature  in  the  land- 
scape is  the  so-called  travellers7  tree,  Ravenala 
Madagascariensis.  This,  with  its  wide-spread- 
ing distichous  leaves,  towering  above  the  sur- 
rounding vegetation,  looks  like  an  enormous  fan 
as  the  long  flat  leaves  are  swayed  backwards  and 
forwards  by  the  wind.  Its  popular  name  has 
been  given  from  the  sentimental  idea  that,  be- 
cause from  the  midrib  of  each  leaf  can  be  obtained 
a  certain  quantity  of  clear,  limpid  fluid,  it  has 
been  created  to  supply  the  weary  traveller  with 
the  much-needed  water  to  quench  his  thirst  while 
passing  from  one  spring  to  another  across  an  arid 
waste.  Unfortunately  for  the  sentiment,  the  tree 
only  grows  in  the  vicinity  of  water,  and  the  leaf  is 
never  punctured  except  from  curiosity  or  wanton- 
ness, and  certainly  neither  because  the  traveller 


THE  FLORA  OK  MADAGASCAR.  40 1 

can  find  no  other  water  nor  can  be  so  capricious 
as  to  prefer  the  disagreeable,  vegetable-flavored 
liquid  stored  in  the  reservoir  of  the  travellers' 
tree  leaf.  If  the  uses  of  the  tree  are  to  be  taken 
as  a  foundation  for  its  name,  this  might  more  ap- 
propriately be  termed  the  household-tree,  for  in 
the  forest  region  and  on  the  lower  plains,  where 
it  flourishes,  its  leaves  supply  the  people  with 
thatch  and  even  walls  occasionally  for  their 
houses,  with  dishes  for  their  rice  and  sweet  pota- 
toes, while  by  carefully  folding  smaller  portions, 
a  spoon  to  convey  the  rice  and  gravy  to  the  mouth 
is  readily  constructed.  Its  woody  trunk  is  utilized 
for  posts  and  even  for  flooring. 

Another  conspicuous  tree  in  the  forest  valleys 
and  on  the  coast  plain  is  the  rofia  palm,  from 
which  the  natives  obtain  the  rafters  of  their  houses 
and  poles  for  carrying  by  simply  stripping  the 
midribs  of  the  leaves  and  drying  them  in  the  sun. 
But  the  most  valuable  part  of  this  tree  is  the 
fibre,  which  is  obtained  by  stripping  the  bark 
from  the  incipient  and  still  folded  leaf.  This  is 
strong  and  durable,  capable  of  great  subdivision 
and  of  taking  dyes.  It  is  accordingly  made  into 
cloth  by  the  people,  both  for  home  consumption, 
in  the  form  of  lambas  striped  with  various  colors 
and  fringed  at  the  ends,  and  for  export,  in  the 
shape  of  the  strong,  coarse  rabannas  used  so  ex- 


402  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

tensively  in  Mauritius  and  Bourbon  for  packing 
sugar  and  coffee.  A  great  quantity  of  the  fibre 
is  packed  under  hydraulic  pressure  into  bales  at 
Tamatave,  and  sent  in  the  raw  state  to  Europe, 
to  be  used  for  horticultural  purposes  and  for  man- 
ufacture into  rope.  There  seems  to  be  little  doubt 
that  a  valuable  paper  might  be  made  from  it  if 
reduced  to  pulp;  but  until  the  means  of  commu- 
nication in  the  interior  of  the  island  are  greatly 
improved,  and  greater  facilities  introduced  for 
transporting  the  fibre  to  the  port,  the  price  will 
exclude  it  from  this  use  to  any  large  extent.  It 
is  called  in  England  ruffia  grass,  doubtless  from 
its  resemblance  to  the  blades  of  grass  torn  from 
the  stalk.    It  is  the  Sagus  ruffia  of  the  botanist. 

Other  palms,  equally  graceful,  though  not  so 
numerous,  are  scattered  throughout  the  forest,  pre- 
senting a  pleasing  contrast  to  the  heavy  branch- 
es and  dark-green  leaves  of  the  large  timber  trees. 
Such  are  the  sago  palm,  the  fan  palm  (Borassus 
flabeliformis).  Several  palms  whose  names  I  do 
not  know  I  have  frequently  met  with  on  the  forest 
tracts  both  on  the  east  and  south;  one,  a  kind  of 
cane  or  bamboo-like  palm,  is  very  plentiful  in  the 
higher  parts  of  the  eastern  forest,  the  stem  not 
being  so  large  as  many  of  the  bamboos.  The 
anivona,  which  Mr.  Sibree  considers  a  species  of 
areca,  is  also  common  on  the  east  of  the  table-land. 


THE  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  403 

The  cocoanut  palm,  which  fills  such  an  im- 
portant place  in  the  economy  of  the  Polynesians, 
does  not  flourish  in  Madagascar.  There  are  no 
plantations  of  it,  and,  as  far  as  my  experience 
goes,  it  is  not  found  in  any  spot  which  has  not 
been  the  known  habitation,  at  some  period  or 
another,  of  a  foreigner.  It  is  true  that  the  native 
name,  voanhio  or  voanio,  is  identical  in  sound 
with  the  name  given  to  the  tree  by  the  Samoans, 
and  possibly  by  other  islanders  of  the  Pacific;  and 
this  would  tend  to  show  that  the  palm  is  indige- 
nous, yet  still  the  fact  of  its  comparative  scarcity 
points  to  an  introduction,  as  not  particularly  val- 
ued by  the  people  of  the  country,  who  have  not 
cared  to  plant  it  for  themselves,  but  have  left 
this  for  the  few  foreigners  who  have  settled  in 
different  spots  on  the  coast. 

Besides  the  cocoanut  palm,  two  or  three  other 
conspicuous  trees  find  a  home  only  near  the  shore. 
There  is  the  beautifully  graceful  fir-like  filao  (Cas- 
uarina  equiseti-folia)  lining  the  beach  in  some 
places,  and  with  its  dark-green  wire-like  leaves 
presenting  a  pleasing  contrast  to  the  large  fleshy- 
leaved  plants  so  common  in  the  tropical  regions 
on  the  coast.  Its  wood  is  valuable  for  house- 
building, being  tough  and  durable,  and  not  sub- 
ject to  attacks  of  the  white  ants. 

The  voavotaka,  generally  believed  to  be  a 


404  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

species  of  strychnos,  and  called  Strychnos  spinosa, 
is  another  plant  very  common  along  the  eastern 
seaboard.  It  never  attains  any  great  size,  but 
has  more  the  appearance  of  a  large,  irregularly- 
grown  shrub  than  a  tree.  The  fruit  is  peculiar, 
globular  in  form,  about  the  size  of  a  large  orange, 
with  a  smooth,  hard  shell  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in 
thickness.  When  cracked  and  opened,  it  is  found 
to  contain  a  whitey-brown  pulp  filled  with  hard 
brown  seeds  the  size  of  a  haricot  bean.  This 
pulp  is  edible,  of  an  acrid  but  not  unpleasant 
taste.  It  produces  violent  headache  if  too  freely 
indulged  in.  Mr.  Baron  asserts*  that  this  is  not 
the  true  Nux  vomica,  nor  even  a  true  strychnos 
(according  to  Bentham  and  Hooker's  definition  of 
the  genus),  but  a  brehmia,  of  which  there  is  but 
one  species.  It  is,  however,  nearly  related  to 
the  Nux  vomica.  It  is  found  in  tropical  Africa, 
Natal,  and  Seychelles  as  well  as  in  Madagascar. 

Along  the  coast  between  Foule  Point  and  the 
head  of  the  Antongil  Bay  are  several  mangrove 
swamps.  Close  by  the  sea,  their  roots  interlaced  in 
the  most  tortuous  fashion,  rendering  locomotion 
difficult,  these  trees  nourish  amid  the  most  loath- 
some-smelling mud  it  has  been  my  misfortune  to 
travel  through,  while  from  above  they  send  down 
suckers  with  root  mouths  at  the  ends  to  form  other 
roots  and  trunks  upon  reaching  the  mud  below. 

*  "Antananarivo  Annual,"  No.  VI.  p.  121. 


THE  FLORA  OK  MADAGASCAR.  405 

The  atafana,  a  tree  bearing  a  species  of  edi- 
ble almond,  also  abounds  on  the  coast  and  is  a 
conspicuous  object,  owing  to  its  peculiar  growth. 
The  trunk  grows  quite  perpendicularly,  and  sends 
out  its  branches  at  regular  intervals.  These 
spread  out  to  a  considerable  distance  (thirty  or 
forty  feet)  horizontally,  and  with  their  large 
leaves  afford  an  agreeable  shade  from  the  in- 
tensely bright  and  hot  sun. 

Perhaps  the  most  graceful  plant  in  the  eastern 
forest  is  the  bamboo,  with  its  long,  pale-green, 
feathery  tops  festooning  the  valleys  with  its 
trembling  clusters  of  grass-like  leaves,  overtop- 
ping the  bushes  and  contrasting  vividly  but  agree- 
ably with  the  darker  foliage  around;  and  as  it  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  plants,  with  its  long, 
slender,  smooth  stems,  so  it  is  one  of  the  most 
useful.  It  is  applied  to  all  kinds  of  purposes  by 
the  people.  They  make  their  tobacco-boxes  of 
the  smaller  stems,  polished  and  sometimes  en- 
graved. Of  the  larger  stems,  poles  for  carrying 
burdens  on  the  shoulders  are  constructed,  while 
others  are  used  for  fetching  water  from  the  wells 
and  for  storing  it  in  the  house.  Bottles  for  hold- 
ing salt,  honey,  rice,  etc.,  are  made  by  simply 
cutting  a  length  from  above  a  joint  and  allow- 
ing the  joint  to  form  the  bottom  of  the  bottle.  A 
smaller  kind,  about  the  thickness  of  the  thumb, 
24 


406  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE). 

but  with  very  long  joints,  is  used  for  the  manu- 
facture of  the  two  kinds  of  native  flutes,  and  a 
kind  of  harp,  described  on  page  57,  is  made  from 
the  larger  varieties.  In  many  parts  of  the  coun- 
try bamboo  is  split  and  hammered  flat,  and  plait- 
ed like  rude  basket-work,  to  form  the  walls  of 
houses,  the  large  sheets  of  plaited  bamboo  being 
kept  in  their  places  by  solid  pieces  of  the  same 
plant,  to  which  they  are  tied.  The  floors  of  the 
forest-houses  are  made  by  tying  a  great  number  of 
bamboos  to  the  joists,  and  in  some  districts  of  the 
island  rafts  for  crossing  the  rivers  are  made  by 
lashing  a  great  number  of  the  largest  bamboos 
together. 

In  many  parts,  both  in  the  forest  and  on  the 
upper  plateau,  are  large  tracts  covered  with  a 
hard  tall  reed,  through  which  it  is  difficult  in  the 
extreme  to  pass,  both  because  of  the  luxuriance 
with  which  it  grows,  and  also  because  the  short 
pointed  leaves  are  hard  and  sharp  as  needles, 
punishing  the  half-naked  bearers  at  every  step 
they  take.  This  bararata  (Phragmites  communis, 
Trin.)  serves  on  the  table-land  many  of  the  pur- 
poses of  the  bamboo  in  the  lower  plains.  It 
forms  the  sides  of  many  of  the  houses  in  locali- 
ties in  which  the  zozoro  (Cyperus  aequalis,  Vahl.), 
the  three-cornered  rush,  does  not  grow;  and  also 
the  laths  attached  to  the  rafters  of  the  houses,  to 


THE  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  407 

which  the  thatch,  either  grass,  straw,  or  the  he- 
rana  (Cyperus  latifolius,  Thouars),  is  tied.  The 
two  rushes  mentioned  above  grow  very  plentiful- 
ly by  the  river-sides  and  in  the  marshy  ground 
of  the  upper  table-land.  The  preparing  them  for 
the  market  employs  a  large  number  of  people  in 
the  country  districts  around  the  capital.  The 
former  is  dried  and  cut  into  equal  lengths,  after 
which  they  are  joined  side  by  side  by  being 
pressed  upon  three  long  pointed  strips  of  bamboo, 
which  hold  the  rushes  together,  and  permit  of 
their  being  used  as  doors,  sides  of  houses,  etc. 
The  latter  is  simply  made  into  handfuls  and  tied 
with  rofia  or  the  bark  of  a  forest  tree  (an  Astrapeia) 
to  the  bararata. 

As  already  mentioned,  one  of  the  marked  fea- 
tures of  the  Malagasy  forest  scenery  is  the  num- 
ber and  variety  of  the  lianas  and  creepers  stretch- 
ing from  tree  to  tree,  hanging  in  long  loops  and 
festoons.  The  most  valuable  of  these  is  the  Vahea 
Madagascariensis,  called  by  the  natives  fingotra, 
from  which  a  part  of  the  india-rubber  is  obtained. 
Unfortunately,  _the  usual  way  of  obtaining  the 
juice  is  by  the  total  destruction  of  the  plant. 
Formerly  it  was  severed  near  the  root,  and  the 
juice  which  descended  from  the  upper  part  was 
collected.  But  this  involved  considerable  loss, 
as  the  highest  parts,  often  hanging  in  long  loops 


408  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

on  the  summits  of  the  trees,  retained  the  sap, 
which  was  desiccated  in  course  of  time  and  was 
of  no  use.  Now,  however,  scarcity  of  the  liana 
has  taught  prudence,  and  the  plant  is  drawn  down 
from  the  trees,  cut  into  convenient  lengths,  and 
each  piece  suspended  over  a  wooden  vessel  till 
the  juice  has  drained  out,  when  it  is  congealed  by 
the  addition  of  the  juice  of  lemons  or  of  a  little 
sulphuric  acid.  In  this  state  it  is  sent  to  Tama- 
tave  and  other  parts,  where  it  has  lately  realized 
from  forty  to  sixty  dollars  the  hundredweight. 

The  pandanus,  of  which  there  are  several  va- 
rieties, is  a  distinct  feature  in  the  landscape  of  the 
eastern  plain.  With  its  large  fleshy  leaves,  armed 
in  most  cases  with  sharp  prickly  edges,  rising  in 
screw-like  fashion  from  the  edges  of  the  rivers 
and  lagoons,  into  which  it  throws  its  roots  from 
a  considerable  height  up  its  trunk,  it  is  not  only 
a  conspicuous  object,  but  of  immense  use  to  the 
people.  Its  leaves  make  very  good  waterproof 
coverings  for  parcels  of  perishable  articles,  such 
as  sugar,  flour,  calico,  books,  etc.,  while  being 
carried  on  the  bearers'  shoulders  to  the  capital. 
Shelters  for  the  benighted  traveller  are  often  and 
very  speedily  made  by  placing  a  number  of  these 
leaves  lengthwise  upon  a  few  sticks  placed  in  the 
shape  of  a  roof.  The  leaves  of  one  kind,  very 
common  south  of  Tamatave,  are  divided  into 


THE  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  409 

strips  of  convenient  width  and  plaited  into  the 
coarse  mats  and  bags  exported  to  Mauritius  and 
Bourbon  for  packing  sugar. 

To  the  north  of  Tamatave  is  a  very  curious 
tree,  growing  near  the  sea  by  the  river-sides, 
called  sanga  by  the  natives,  from  the  fact  that, 
although  very  tall,  it  has  no  foliage  except  at  the 
summit,  resembling  a  top-knot — the  meaning  of 
the  native  name.  Mr.  Baron,  who  saw  them  in 
1882,  speaks  of  them  as  a  species  of  weinman- 
uia. 

The  home  of  these  curious  trees  is  also  the 
home  of  one  of  the  most  beautiful  orchids  found 
in  the  country,  the  Angraecum  sesquipedale,  which 
I  have  seen  growing  in  the  greatest  profusion  on 
the  dead  tree-trunks,  and  even  on  the  rocks  so 
near  the  sea  that  at  times  they  must  have  been 
washed  by  the  sea  spray.  It  has  frequently  been 
stated  that  the  long  spur  (from  a  foot  to  eighteen 
inches  in  length)  "points  to  the  existence  of  an 
insect  with  an  extraordinary  long  trunk  or  suck- 
ing tube  for  the  fertilization  of  the  flower."*  I 
have  had  very  many  of  these  orchids  in  my  gar- 
den at  Tamatave,  and  they  have  frequently  be- 
come fertilized  and  the  seeds  come  to  perfection, 
yet  no  insect  with  a  longer  proboscis  than  the 
ordinary  hawk-moth  has  been  discovered.    But  I 

•  Sibree's  "  Great  African  Island,"  p.  98, 


4IO  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

noticed  on  very  many  of  the  specimens  a  species 
of  ant,  which  fed  upon  the  petals  and  spur  of  the 
flower,  in  some  cases  eating  away  a  great  part  of 
the  surface.  As  I  have  seen  these  ants  making 
their  way  in  and  out  of  the  orifice  of  the  spur,  I 
believe  that  the  A.  sesquipedale  is  fructified  by 
ants  and  not  by  any  long-trunked  insect. 

Of  all  the  many  beautiful  varieties  of  vegeta- 
ble life  in  Madagascar,  none  are  more  attractive, 
from  their  delicate  perfume  and  the  purity  of  their 
color,  than  the  orchids,  of  which  there  is  a  great 
variety  in  the  country.  The  flowers,  like  wax, 
shining  out  star-like  amid  a  dense  cluster  of  dark 
green  leaves,  perched  in  the  forks  of  branches  or 
springing  from  the  protruding  roots  of  the  smaller 
trees  and  bushes,  present  a  picture  not  easily 
erased  from  the  memory.  The  Angrsecum  El- 
lisii,  brought  to  England  by  Mr.  Ellis,  is  still,  and 
justly  so  too,  a  great  favorite.  Its  large  cluster 
of  butterfly-like  flowers,  each  with  a  spur  seven 
or  eight  inches  long,  when  in  full  bloom  is  a 
splendid  sight.  The  A.  superbus,  to  be  met  with 
in  such  profusion  among  the  bushes  on  the  coast, 
has  a  spur  of  flowers  two  feet  long  and  exhales  a 
delicious  fragrance.  Many  of  the  orchids  in  the 
island  are  still  unnamed,  and  only  a  few  compar- 
atively have  found  their  way  to  England  alive. 
I  had  the  opportunity  of  seeing  in  Tamatave  a 


THE  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  411 


splendid  collection  growing  in  the  ground  of  a 
French  collector,  among  which  were  thousands 
of  specimens,  of  all  sizes  and  of  various  colors — 
white,  white  and  yellow,  yellow,  yellow  striped 
with  red,  brown  and  gold,  mauve  and  white,  pur- 
ple, etc. ,  presenting  as  gorgeous  a  show  of  flower- 
ing beauty  as  it  is  possible  to  conceive. 

From  various  parts  of  the  forests  very  valua- 
ble wood  for  building  and  cabinet-making  is  ob- 
tained. The  rosewood  is  found  in  the  southeast; 
a  species  of  ebony  also  is  brought  from  the  same 
locality.  A  wood  resembling  teak  in  some  of  its 
graining,  and  mahogany  in  others,  is  the  com- 
monest wood  used  in  the  capital  for  floors,  doors, 
windows,  and  heavy  furniture,  while  the  nato,  or 
natte,  a  red  wood  from  the  bark  of  which  the  peo- 
ple obtain  their  red  dye,  is  used  for  the  same  pur- 
poses on  the  east  coast.  A  very  hard  and  durable 
wood  called  the  varongy  (Calophyllum  inophyl- 
lum)  is  extensively  used  for  posts,  rafters,  joists, 
etc. ,  but  possesses  no  particular  beauty.  A  species 
of  sandalwood  is  found  near  the  east  coast  and  is  in 
request  for  cabinet-work.  The  grain  is  fair,  and 
the  scent,  though  strong,  and  not  disagreeable 
when  first  brought  from  the  forest,  soon  loses  a 
great  deal  of  its  fragrance  by  exposure.  As  the 
law  at  present  exists,  none  of  this  valuable  tim- 
ber can  be  exported,  or  it  would  doubtless  soon 


412  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

find  its  way  into  the  English  and  other  European 
markets. 

But  the  most  useful  plants  and  trees  to  the  na- 
tive are  those  which  furnish  him  with  food,  cloth- 
ing, and  medicine.  Among  the  former  are  such 
trees  as  the  bread-fruit,  the  tamarind,  and  varie- 
ties of  the  ficus  among  the  larger  trees;  while 
among  smaller  plants  is  to  be  found  a  great  va- 
riety of  food-yielding  vegetation.  The  various 
arums  cultivated  in  the  swampy  gardens  near  the 
rivers  on  the  coast,  and  called  Saonjo  mamy,  are 
apparently  identical  with  the  taro  of  the  South 
Sea  islands,  and  are  very  palatable  and  wholesome. 
A  gigantic  arum  (Arum  colocasia?)  grows  in  great 
abundance  along  the  rivers  in  the  east,  but,  ex- 
cept in  case  of  famine,  it  is  not  used  for  human 
food,  though  the  seeds  are  always  extensively 
used  for  feeding  the  pigs.  A  yam,  the  root  of  a 
creeping  plant  found  throughout  the  forest  re- 
gion, is  also  used,  and  when  boiled  very  much 
resembles  a  potato.  The  mangahazo,  the  manioc, 
forms  an  important  article  of  vegetable  food.  It 
has  been  very  extensively  cultivated  since  the 
last  rice  famine,  and  although  on  the  table-land 
it  occupies  the  ground  for  a  long  period  before 
coming  to  perfection,  nearly  ten  times  as  long  as 
on  the  coast,  yet  land  is  not  of  so  much  value  as 
to  be  likely  to  enter  into  the  calculation. 


THE  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  413 

In  some  parts  of  the  country,  especially  among 
the  Sakalava  and  Ibara,  a  great  deal  of  Tacca 
pinnatifida  is  cultivated,  from  which  a  kind  of 
arrowroot  is  made  that  is  said  to  form  the  chief 
article  of  consumption  among  the  western  tribes. 
It  is  very  insipid,  but  nourishing. 

The  sweet  potato  is  cultivated  in  all  parts  of 
the  country,  and  not  only  is  the  root  cooked  and 
used  as  food,  but,  in  common  with  those  of  the 
mangahazo,  the  leaves  are  boiled  as  a  vegeta- 
ble, to  be  eaten  as  a  kind  of  curry  to  flavor  the 
rice. 

Several  kinds  of  anana,  or  vegetables  of  which 
the  leaves  only  are  eaten,  are  cultivated  in  gar- 
den patches  around  the  houses,  the  commonest 
being  the  anamamy  (Solanum  nigrum),  which,  be- 
lying its  name,  sweet  vegetable,  is  extremely  bit- 
ter, and  to  many  who  taste  it  for  the  first  time 
very  unpalatable. 

The  potato  has  been  introduced  into  the  in- 
terior and  grows  prolifically  and  without  disease, 
and  with  the  expenditure  of  very  little  labor  on 
the  part  of  the  people  to  secure  a  good  crop.  It 
is  very  much  appreciated  by  the  natives,  who 
have  brought  considerable  tracts  south  of  Imer- 
ina  under  this  cultivation.  In  a  peaty  soil  the 
native  simply  has  to  turn  over  the  clods  in  great 
masses,  drop  the  seed  potatoes  in  the  centre  of  the 


414  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

reversed  clod,  and  wait  the  result.  When  pro- 
gressing towards  maturity  they  are  sought  for  by 
the  owner,  not  by  digging  and  then  selecting  the 
fair-sized  tubers  and  discarding  the  small  ones, 
but  by  scratching  away  carefully  the  soil  with  a 
pointed  stick,  by  which  means  he  secures  the  lar- 
gest harvest,  as  he  removes  the  fully-grown  pota- 
toes and  allows  the  small  ones  to  develop  until 
the  haulm  is  dead.  On  the  roadsides  between 
the  chief  towns  in  the  interior  are  invariably  to 
be  found  stalls  for  the  sale  of  cooked  potatoes  as 
well  as  the  mangahazo  and  sweet  potato.  If  com- 
munication with  the  coast  were  more  fully  devel- 
oped there  is  no  reason  why  potatoes  and  wheat 
should  not  become  articles  of  considerable  com- 
mercial importance.  The  latter  is  cultivated,  but 
only  to  a  very  limited  extent  at  present,  yet  suffi- 
ciently to  demonstrate  the  capability  of  the  soil  to 
produce  a  good  harvest. 

But  the  chief  article  of  food  cultivated  by  the 
Malagasy  is  rice,  of  which  there  are  several  qual- 
ities found  in  the  same  districts,  while  other  vari- 
eties have  a  limited  cultivation.  Some  are  plant- 
ed like  wheat,  in  a  moist,  light  soil,  but  without 
any  irrigation,  as  in  the  forest  clearings  on  the 
east,  where,  after  burning  down  a  portion  of  the 
forest,  the  rice  is  dropped  into  the  soil  thus  ma- 
nured with  the  ashes  of  the  timber  and  brush- 


THE  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  415 

wood.  This  is  a  hard,  reddish-colored  rice,  not 
held  in  mnch  esteem  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
highlands.  There  the  rice  is  invariably  grown 
under  water,  and  considerable  ingenuity  is  exhib- 
ited by  the  people  in  the  formation  of  their  rice- 
fields. 

Around  the  capital  the  plain  is  level  and  low, 
and  no  very  great  amount  of  skill  is  required  to 
keep  the  rice-fields  constantly  under  water,  by 
means  of  narrow  channels  or  ditches  leading  from 
the  river  above  the  town  and  rejoining  the  river 
below.  But  in  many  places,  notably  in  the  Bet- 
sileo,  a  considerable  amount  of  engineering  talent 
is  exhibited  by  the  people.  After  having  selected 
a  spot  as  suitable  for  the  formation  of  their  rice 
plantation  they  lead  the  water,  by  means  of  gul- 
lies cut  in  the  sides  of  the  mountains,  for  consid- 
erable distances,  in  some  cases  a  mile  or  two, 
from  a  spring  situated  sufficiently  high  to  allow 
of  the  necessary  fall.  The  ravines  and  deep 
valleys  are  crossed  by  roughly-made  aqueducts, 
formed  by  hollowing  a  tree  and  placing  it  across 
the  chasm.  In  some  broader  valleys  a  number  of 
these  are  necessary.  In  one  place,  by  a  series  of 
these  hollowed  trunks,  I  have  seen  the  water  con- 
ducted a  hundred  or  a  hundred  and  twenty  yards, 
the  rough  aqueduct  being  supported  at  the  junc- 
tures by  long  posts  driven  into  the  ground  in 


416  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

pairs,  with  a  cross-piece  at  the  proper  height 
lashed  across  them. 

Having  thus  conducted  the  water,  a  series  of 
terraces  are  made,  commencing  as  high  up  the 
valley,  or  even  on  the  convex  side  of  the  hill,  as 
the  water  will  flow  to  readily.  Bach  terrace  is  so 
constructed  that  the  overflow  of  water  shall  fall 
into  the  terrace  below;  so  that  as  many  as  a  hun- 
dred or  hundred  and  fifty  of  these  rice  terraces 
may  be  seen  kept  constantly  full  of  water  by  a 
small  stream  which  enters  the  top  one  and  dis- 
charges itself  eventually  from  the  lowest. 

The  rice  is  sown  in  a  patch,  sheltered  from  the 
winds,  and  near  enough  to  the  houses  to  be  pro- 
tected in  part  from  the  depredations  of  the  birds; 
and  after  it  has  shot  up  to  a  height  of  about  eight 
inches  it  is  pulled  up  by  the  roots  and  transplant- 
ed into  the  larger  rice  plains  or  terraces.  This  is 
usually  done  by  the  women,  who  sing  as  they 
work,  pushing  into  the  soft  mud  one  of  the  plants 
at  each  accented  note.  In  some  respects  this  is 
one  of  the  pleasing  sights  of  life  in  the  interior  of 
Madagascar,  for  it  is  a  relief  to  see  the  people, 
usually  content  to  "let  things  slide, "  in  earnest 
about  some  work;  and  no  one  who  only  saw  the 
Malagasy  women  when  at  work  in  their  rice-fields 
would  think  them  otherwise  than  overwhelming- 
ly energetic.   But  there  the  charm  ends,  for  work- 


THE  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  4^7 

ing  in  soft  mud  and  muddy  water  above  the  knees 
is  no  improvement  to  personal  appearance,  and 
the  position  assumed  is  anything  but  graceful. 

Except  the  weeding,  which  is  performed  by 
the  men  once  during  their  growth,  no  further 
care  is  taken  of  the  rice  plants  than  to  see  that 
the  roots  are  constantly  under  water  until  the 
time  of  harvest  draws  near.  Then  troops  of 
small  boys  are  stationed  with  slings  and  stones  to 
keep  off  the  flocks  of  fody  which  infest  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  rice-fields  and  prey  upon  the  ri- 
pening grain.  The  fody  is  not  the  only  enemy  to 
the  rice.  I  have  known  whole  districts  cleared  of 
the  rice  by  locusts,  and  in  the  earlier  stages  of  its 
growth  by  rats. 

At  harvest-time  all  the  village  turns  out  to 
reap  each  man's  plot,  as  the  women  did  to  trans- 
plant. The  rice  is  cut  with  knives  near  the  foot, 
and  carried  to  the  threshing-floor  and  stacked  in 
long,  low  stacks.  After  this  it  is  threshed  by  the 
men  taking  a  handful  in  each  hand,  by  the  end 
nearest  the  root,  and  striking  the  ears  on  a  stone 
placed  in  the  centre  of  the  threshing-floor.  The 
winnowing  is  performed  by  simply  holding  a  bas- 
ketful of  the  newly-threshed  rice  as  high  as  possi- 
ble and  pouring  it  out  gently,  allowing  the  wind 
to  carry  away  the  chaff.  It  is  then  stored  in  the 
various  ways  peculiar  to  the  different  tribes.  In 


418  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

Imerina  and  Betsileo  it  is  placed  in  pits  dug  in 
the  hard  red  soil  and  lined  with  mats.  In  the 
Bara  and  Tanala  and  coast  tribes  it  is  stored  in 
small  houses  mounted  on  poles  four  or  five  feet 
from  the  ground,  and  protected  from  the  ravages 
of  the  rats  by  a  wooden  hood  at  the  top  of  each 
post,  over  which  the  rats  cannot  pass. 

There  is  no  reason  why  rice  should  not  become 
a  much  more  important  article  of  commerce  than 
it  has  been.  Some  little  quantity  has  every  year 
been  exported  to  Mauritius  and  Bourbon;  but 
with  the  capabilities  of  the  country,  especially 
in  the  swampy  lowlands  of  the  coast  plain,  there 
is  room  for  an  almost  unlimited  supply.  No  for- 
eigner has,  however,  turned  his  attention  to  this 
branch  of  agriculture,  but  all  the  rice  brought 
into  the  ports  has  been  of  purely  native  produc- 
tion, and  hence  grown  on  a  small  scale.  The 
land  suitable  could  be  procured  at  very  little  cost, 
and  no  considerable  capital  would  be  required 
further  than  that  necessary  to  pay  wages,  and  I 
am  convinced  a  large  return  would  be  the  result 
of  fairly  good  management.  It  has  been  objected 
that  the  rice  is  small  and  broken;  but  this  is 
simply  the  result  of  the  primitive  mode  of  re- 
moving the  husk,  which  is  done  by  merely  pla- 
cing the  well-dried  rice  in  a  wooden  mortar  and 
pounding  it  with  wooden  pestles  until  the  grain 


THK  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  419 

is  free  of  husk.  But  notwithstanding  this  rough- 
and-ready  plan,  there  are  qualities  of  rice  which, 
in  point  of  size  and  purity  of  color,  compare  fa- 
vorably with  the  highly-esteemed  South  Carolina 
rice. 

The  vegetable  production  which  has  for  the 
longest  period  occupied  the  attention  of  foreign 
capitalists  as  an  article  of  commerce  is  coffee. 
Great  hopes  were  entertained  by  planters  that  a 
large  return  would  be  the  result  of  money  laid  out 
in  the  purchase  and  propagation  of  this  plant. 
Large  tracts  along  the  coast  were  planted,  nota- 
bly around  Mananjara,  south  of  Tamatave,  at  Ma- 
hela,  Mahanoro,  and  elsewhere:  considerable  sums 
of  money  were  invested  in  this  industry,  and  for 
a  few  years  all  went  well.  But  trouble  soon  came. 
At  Mananjara  whole  plantations  were  swept  to 
the  ground  by  the  cyclones  of  1868-72,  and  in 
other  places  it  was  discovered,  when  too  late,  that 
the  soil  was  too  damp  for  the  continual  produc- 
tiveness of  the  coffee  plant.  For  a  certain  num- 
ber of  years  the  tree  grew  and  bore  well,  but 
after  the  tap-root  had  penetrated  to  a  certain 
depth  the  leaves  and  fruit  rotted  off  the  branches 
and  the  tree  died.  Hence  all  the  coffee  estates 
on  the  coast  and  near  it  are  abandoned,  and 
their  promoters  have  in  many  cases  been  ruined. 

But  in  the  interior,  especially  along  the  rocky 


420  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

sides  of  the  central  plateau,  the  plant  succeeds  well, 
attains  a  great  size,  and  bears  both  freely  and  of 
good  quality.  There  is,  however,  very  little 
more  grown  than  is  required  for  the  home  con- 
sumption. Only  small  parcels  find  their  way  to 
Europe,  and  that  under  a  false  name.  It  finds, 
however,  ready  sale  at  good  prices,  and  is  highly 
esteemed  for  its  flavor. 

This  is  another  industry  which  only  awaits  a 
more  ready  communication  with  the  coast  from 
the  interior  to  command  a  much  greater  atten- 
tion than  has  hitherto  been  given  to  it.  I  have 
seen  trees  in  the  uplands  covered  with  berries, 
and  producing  a  splendid  harvest  for  the  people, 
without  any  particular  care  having  been  taken 
with  them  and  despite  the  unscientific  manner 
in  which  the  natives  treated  them. 

Spices  of  various  kinds  have  been  tried  as  an 
article  of  commercial  produce  along  the  east 
coast,  and  as  far  as  the  venture  has  gone  I  believe 
it  has  been  a  success.  Cloves  and  cinnamon 
flourish  in  the  hot  climate  and  damp  soil  of  the 
low  plain,  and  pepper  would  doubtless  be  still 
more  profitable,  as  the  wild  pepper  of  the  forests 
produces  abundantly,  and  the  berries  have  be- 
come an  article  of  trade  in  all  the  markets  in 
the  interior,  under  the  name  voamperifery.  It  is 
the  Peperonica  Lyallii. 


THE  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  42 1 

Among  the  fibres  which  are  produced  abun- 
dantly by  the  natives  for  their  own  use,  and 
which  might  become  articles  of  export  if  the 
cultivation  were  taken  in  hand  by  European  en- 
terprise, these  may  be  mentioned :  cotton ;  a  species 
of  flax;  the  fibre  of  the  hemp,  Cannabis  sativa;  the 
barks  of  certain  forest  trees,  as  the  species  of  As- 
trapeia,  from  which  the  natives  make  string  and 
even  weave  cloth;  and  the  fibres  of  the  banana, 
also  used  by  the  people  for  cloth-making.  Silk 
is  also  grown  in  large  quantities  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  table-land,  the  plant  upon  which  the 
insect  feeds  being  grown  in  patches  covering 
acres  of  land  in  the  large  plain  around  Ambo- 
himandroso. 

But  the  vegetable  production  upon  which  the 
greatest  amount  of  skill  has  been  bestowed  by 
the  foreigners  in  Madagascar,  and  upon  the 
development  of  which  the  greatest  amount  of 
money  has  been  expended,  is  the  sugar-cane. 
The  soil  and  humid  climate  of  the  coast  seem  ad- 
mirably suited  to  its  cultivation,  and  without  any 
large  amount  of  high  farming  or  especial  care  the 
cane,  though  not  attaining  the  size  seen  in  ima- 
gination by  a  certain  newspaper  correspondent, 
who  describes  it  as  "thirty  feet  in  height,"  yet 
reaches  to  a  height  of  twelve  or  eighteen  feet  and 
large  in  girth.    It  is  full  of  juice,  but  contains 

Madagascar  and  France.  o  C 


422  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

a  large  proportion  of  water  as  compared  with  the 
product  of  the  same  species  of  cane  raised  in  the 
drier  atmosphere  of  Mauritius.  But,  notwithstand- 
ing the  low  percentage  of  saccharine  matter  in 
the  expressed  juice,  so  prolific  is  the  growth  of 
the  cane  that  the  extra  time  and  expense  involved 
in  the  evaporating  processes  are  fully  compensated 
for  by  the  large  yield  of  sugar  compared  with  the 
trouble  and  expense  of  growth. 

In  the  interior  the  juice  is  expressed  between 
a  couple  of  roughly-made  rollers  of  wood  fixed  in 
two  upright  posts  and  turned  by  hand.  The 
canes  are  inserted  between  the  rollers,  which  are 
fixed  so  near  to  each  other  as  to  squeeze  the  cane 
quite  dry,  and  the  juice  is  caught  in  a  wooden 
trough  below.  Some  of  this  juice  is  fermented 
and  made  into  a  native  drink,  called  betsabetsa, 
or  distilled  after  the  fermentation  and  made  into 
a  spirit  called  toaka,  which  is  now  unfortunately 
the  chief  product  of  the  sugar-cane  in  Imerina. 
This  coarse  spirit  (flavored  with  anise-seed)  is  sold 
in  most  of  the  markets  in  the  interior  of  the  coun- 
try, and  produces  sad  havoc  among  the  young 
and  ignorant  and  causes  one  of  the  great  troubles 
of  the  missionaries  and  pastors  in  the  conduct  of 
church  affairs.  A  small  quantity  of  the  juice 
comparatively  is  boiled  for  sugar.  This  is  of  the 
coarsest  kind,  the  juice  being  simply  boiled  till  it 


THE  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  423 

is  thick  enough  to  harden  on  cooling  into  a  cake, 
and  in  that  form  it  is  sold.  When  required  for 
use,  a  little  is  scraped  into  a  suitable  vessel. 

On  the  coast  sugar-rnills  after  the  pattern  of 
those  at  work  in  Mauritius  and  Bourbon  have 
been  erected.  British  subjects  owned  four  of  the 
five  mills  planted  near  Tamatave,  three  of  which 
were  worked  by  steam  and  one  by  bullocks.  In 
these,  and  notably  in  the  largest — that  of  Messrs. 
Wilson  &  Co.  at  Melville,  ten  miles  west  of 
Tamatave — machinery  of  the  most  approved  kind 
and  of  the  newest  type  was  to  be  found.  Crush- 
ing machines,  with  their  immense  grooved  roll- 
ers, stood  ready  to  receive  the  cane  as  it  came  in 
from  the  field.  Large  cup-shaped  boilers  received 
the  liquid  conveyed  to  them  through  troughs  com- 
municating with  the  reservoir  below  the  rollers. 
Then  after  being  boiled,  passed  through  refrige- 
rators, and  evaporated  in  a  vacuum-pan,  it  was 
left  to  crystalline,  after  which  the  crystals  were 
separated  from  the  syrup  in  turbines.  The  syrup 
was  again  passed  through  the  various  processes, 
and  a  lower  class  of  sugar  obtained. 

In  this  way  large  quantities  of  sugar  of  a  good 
quality  were  annually  exported  to  Mauritius  and 
Natal,  and  the  prospects  of  the  planters  were 
bright  and  alluring.  Each  and  all  were  looking 
forward  to  not  only  covering  by  the  harvest  of 


424 


MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 


1883  the  great  outlay  caused  by  the  establishing 
of  such  large  concerns,  but  also  to  the  netting 
of  a  considerable  balance.  As  it  is,  however,  the 
outbreak  of  hostilities  has  prevented  the  cutting 
of  the  canes,  which  were  just  ripe  for  the  sugar- 
mill,  and  the  merchants  and  planters  have  had 
the  chagrin  of  seeing  their  harvest  rotting  on  the 
land  and  the  mills  being  ruined  by  inability  to 
protect  them. 

Madagascar  is  well  supplied  with  fruit,  some 
indigenous  to  the  country,  and  other  kinds  intro- 
duced and  flourishing.  Among  the  former  the 
banana  holds  the  first  place.  It  is  universal  and 
very  plentiful,  of  many  varieties,  but  all  good. 
Because  of  its  sustaining  and  satisfying  qualities 
it  is  an  excellent  article  of  food.  The  lemon  and 
lime,  the  rose-apple  and  guava,  also  abound. 
The  orange,  one  of  the  introduced  fruits,  has  be- 
come at  Tamatave  an  article  of  commerce;  while 
the  vine,  when  properly  cared  for,  furnishes  two 
splendid  crops  of  grapes  in  the  year,  one  in  De- 
cember and  the  other  in  June.  Beside  these 
may  be  mentioned  the  citron,  melon,  pineapple, 
loquat,  li-chi,  avocat  (the  alligator  pear),  custard- 
apple,  mango,  peach,  mulberry,  pomegranate, 
and  quince.  Figs  in  great  quantities,  but  of 
poor  quality,  grow  in  many  parts  of  the  forest 
and  on  the  upper  plateau. 


THE  PITCHER  PLANT. 


THE  FLORA  OF  MADAGASCAR.  427 

Among  the  curiosities  of  the  plant-life  on  the 
east  coast  should  be  mentioned  the  three  most 
notable.  The  sensitive  plant,  growing  in  abun- 
dance about  one  hundred  miles  south  of  Tama- 
tave,  is  a  conspicuous  object,  with  its  delicate 
flowers  resembling  tufts  of  pink  threads,  and  its 
highly  sensitive  leaves  and  leaf-stalks.  When 
touched  the  leaves  immediately  fold  themselves 
up,  and  then  the  leaf-stalk  falls,  almost  hiding 
the  leaves  under  the  branches  of  the  plant.  The 
pitcher-plant  also  grows  in  the  marshes  along  the 
east  coast,  but  generally  out  of  sight  among  the 
rushes  and  sedges  at  the  water-side.  At  the  end 
of  each  leaf,  which  narrows  to  a  mere  stalk  at  the 
tip,  it  carries  a  vase-like  excrescence,  very  much 
resembling  a  pitcher,  with  lid  and  all  complete. 
This  pitcher  seems  provided  for  the  purpose  of 
keeping  the  leaves  well  supplied  with  moisture, 
as  I  have  frequently  found  them  with  a  consid- 
erable quantity  of  water  in  these  receptacles. 

The  lace-leaf  plant,  the  other  curious  plant  to 
which  reference  is  made,  has  frequently  been 
described.  In  the  rivers  west  of  Tamatave  great 
quantities  of  this  fresh-water  yam  may  be  seen 
sending  its  two-forked  flower  just  above  the  ed- 
dying of  the  water,  in  which  it  bobs  backwards 
and  forwards  in  a  fantastic  dance.  The  root  is 
edible,  but  the  interest  of  the  plant  centres  in  its 


428  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

leaves,  which  are  about  eight  to  fourteen  inches 
long,  and  resemble  a  square-patterned  lace  or  a 
skeleton  leaf  with  parallel  veining,  the  whole 
space  between  being  empty.  These  are  supported 
on  stalks  two  or  three  feet  long,  just  sufficient  to 
raise  the  leaf  to  the  level  of  the  water.  For  many 
years  it  was  thought  to  be  confined  to  Madagas- 
car; but  since  the  time  that  Mr.  Ellis  first  made 
the  scientific  world  acquainted  with  the  strange 
Ouvirandra  fenestralis  it  has  been  discovered  that 
plants  somewhat  similar  have  been  growing  in 
other  parts  of  the  world. 

I  have  not  attempted  to  give  anything  but  a 
cursory  glance  at  the  vegetation  of  an  island 
which  is  full  of  interest  to  the  botanist,  and  to 
point  out  a  few  of  its  features,  leaving  open  the 
vast  field,  which  can  only  be  properly  treated  in 
a  work  devoted  to  that  science  alone. 


METEOROLOGY. 


429 


CHAPTER  XV. 

METEOROLOGY. 

A  Year's  Registrations  at  Tamatave.  Observations  in  the  Interior. 
The  Wet  and  Dry  Seasons.  Waterspouts.  Rainstorms. 
Earthquakes.  Mists. 

As  this  is  a  subject  closely  connected  with  the 
capabilities  of  a  country  for  agricultural  and  com- 
mercial development,  it  may  be  interesting  to 
give  the  results  of  one  year's  regular  registration 
at  Tamatave  in  latitude  18°  10'  S.  and  49°  27'  E. 
longitude.  The  observations  were  taken  15  feet 
above  the  level  of  high  water,  and  at  a  consider- 
able distance  from  any  other  habitations. 

The  instruments  used  for  the  observations  are 
all  by  Cassella,  and  were  mounted  according  to 
the  instructions  of  the  Meteorological  Society  of 
London.  The  maximum  and  minimum  ther- 
mometers, with  the  hygrometer,  were  mounted 
four  feet  above  the  grass  in  a  Stevenson  stand, 
to  which  the  wind  from  every  quarter  had  free 
access.  Hence  the  readings  are  in  all  cases  con- 
siderably below  what  they  would  have  been  in 
the  ordinary  shade  of  a  veranda  or  house.  The 
direct  heat  of  the  sun  was  measured  by  an  insu- 
lated thermometer  placed  on  a  stand  four  feet 


430  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

from  the  ground.  This  thermometer  being  in- 
serted in  an  outer  shield,  and  in  a  nearly  complete 
vacuum,  the  maximum  direct  heat  of  the  sun  can 
be  registered  unaffected  by  humidity  and  wind. 
It  is,  however,  incorrect  to  imagine  that  it  regis- 
ters the  maximum  heat  of  the  sun's  rays  at  any 
given  time,  but  rather  the  accumulative  heat 
during  the  hottest  part  of  the  day.  For  the  outer 
case  of  clear  glass  is  a  conductor  for  the  bright 
heat  of  the  sun's  rays,  but  a  non-conductor  of  the 
dull  heat  thus  confined  in  the  ball  in  the  centre 
of  which  is  the  blackened  bulb  of  the  thermome- 
ter. The  mouth  of  the  rain-gauge,  wrhich  is 
placed  perfectly  perpendicular  in  an  open  space, 
was  one  foot  from  the  ground.  The  amount  of 
cloud  (from  clear  sky  to  complete  overcast,  o  to  10) 
was  estimated  at  each  time  of  observation.  The 
wind  also  (from  o  to  12)  was  estimated  in  the 
same  way.  The  barometer  used  was  an  aneroid. 
The  observations  have  been  registered  at  9  o'clock 
A.  M.  and  at  3  p.  M. 

In  one  or  two  respects,  noted  below,  the  weath- 
er of  1881-2  was  exceptional.  During  the  sum- 
mer, from  October  to  February,  the  northerly  wind 
was  but  seldom  felt  at  Tamatave,  variable  winds, 
frequently  with  a  southwesterly  direction,  taking 
the  place  of  the  northeast  wind.  The  winter 
months  are  generally  spoken  of  as  the  wet  season 


METEOROLOGY. 


431 


on  the  coast,  and  the  summer  as  the  dry  season. 
But  in  June,  1882,  only  8.52  inches  of  rain  fell, 
against  15.5  inches  in  June,  1881.  There  was  a 
fall  of  2.19  inches  in  May,  1882,  while  in  May, 
1 881,  there  fell  9.76  inches.  With  these  excep- 
tions the  year  chosen  may  be  considered  a  typical 
one  in  meteorology.  The  total  amount  of  rain- 
fall for  the  year  was  94.94  inches.  The  greatest 
fall  in  any  24  hours  took  place  on  June  29,  when 
5.06  inches  were  registered. 

The  number  of  days  on  which  rain  fell,  and 
the  total  amount  for  each  month,  were  distributed 
through  the  year  as  follows: 


Days  in  which  rain  fell. 

Inches. 

.    .    .    .  17 

4.18 

.    .    .    .  13 

5-20 

.    .    .    .  17 

6.33 

.    .    .    .  19 

13.02 

.    .    .    .  18 

11.62 

"  March  .    .  . 

6.46 

"  April    .    .  . 

.    .    •    .  23 

n-35 

"  May  .... 

.    .    .    .  16 

2.19 

"  June .... 

.    .    .    .  19 

8.52 

"  July  .... 

.     .     .     .  2S 

1345 

741 

.     .     .     .  14 

5-21 

The  general  direction  of  the  wind  was  souther- 
ly. During  306  days  it  blew  between  east,  round 
by  south,  to  the  west;  and  during  the  remaining 
59  days  it  had  a  direction  between  east,  round  by 
north,  to  west.  There  was  no  hurricane  on  the 
coast  during  the  year,  though  considerable  fear 


432  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE- 


was  felt  on  February  26,  when  the  barometer  fell 
from  300  in  the  morning  at  9  o'clock  to  29.81  by 
12  o'clock  noon,  rising  to  29.90  on  February  27, 
and  falling  to  29.80  by  3  o'clock,  and  on  the  fol- 
lowing day  from  29.91  to  29.81.  On  March  3  it 
again  became  steady  at  a  little  above  30.  This 
was  the  greatest  atmospheric  disturbance  we  had 
during  the  year.  The  wind  at  the  time  was  strong 
from  south  and  southeast  to  south. 

The  greatest  amount  of  heat  registered  by  the 
insulated  solar  radiation  thermometer  was  on 
December  22,  when  it  stood  at  1630.  The  high- 
est temperature  in  the  shade  in  a  good  current  of 
air  was  930,  which  it  attained  on  December  24, 
January  1 5  and  25.  The  lowest  temperature  during 
the  night  was  580  on  June  28  and  July  9  and  10. 

AVERAGE  DAILY  RECISTER,  MORNING  AND  AFTERNOON. 


AT  9  O'CLOCK  A.  M. 


Thermometer. 

Amount 

Force 

Rainfall 

Date. 

Barometer. 

of 
Cloud. 

of 
Wind. 

in 
Inches. 

Dry 
Bulb. 

"Wot 
Bulb. 

October  .  . 

30.288 

/6 

68.3 

3-1 

2-3 

•139 

November . 

30-I53 

79-5 

73-5 

3-2 

•173 

December  . 

30.2 

82.6 

77-7 

3-5 

2.1 

.204 

January  .  . 

3O.II4 

84.08 

76.7 

4-3 

2.6 

•434 

February  . 

30-05 

82.2 

76.8 

5 

3-5 

415 

March  .  .  . 

30.O9 

80 

75 

4 

4 

.208 

April  .... 

30.I86 

78.4 

74-3 

4 

3 

.378 

May  .... 

30-23 

73 

76 

4 

2.S 

.07 

June  .... 

30.376 

71.8 

68.Q 

5-4 

3-5 

.284 

July  

3°-23 

69.9 

67.8 

4-7 

2.4 

.448 

August .  .  . 

30.40 

7i-5 

67.8 

4 

3 

.240 

September 

30-35 

74 

69 

3 

7 

.18 

METEOROLOGY.  433 


AT  3  O'CLOCK  P.  M. 


Thermometer. 

Date. 

Barometer. 

Amount 

Force 

Maxi- 

Mini- 

Maxi- 

of 

mum  in 

mum  in 

mum  in 

Cloud. 

Wind. 

Shade. 

Shade. 

Sun. 

Dry 

Wet 

Bulb. 

Bulb. 

October  .  . 

3°-259 

79-3 

7O.9 

2.4 

/9-9 

62  4 

I40.4 

November . 

3°-°95 

80.5 

72.8 

3-3 

.8 
3-° 

9l  A 

£R  T 

I4O.2 

December  . 

30.06 

82.4 

74-9 

3-2 

2.8 

05.2 

66.4 

I4I.4 

January  . 

84.2 

78.2 

T  J 

J  T 

88.8 

7O.9 

February  . 

30.01 

83 

77-5 

4 

3-9 

86 

71.8 

145 

March  .  .  . 

30-03 

81 

76 

5 

4 

85 

69 

143 

April  .... 

30.091 

80 

76 

4 

3 

83 

68 

145 

May  .     .  . 

30.18 

79 

72 

3-3 

3-3 

82 

64 

137 

June  .... 

30.33 

74-3 

70.3 

5-2 

4.1 

77.75 

61.5 

I3I.I 

July  

30.386 

72.8 

70.7 

3-S 

3-8 

75-9 

60.9 

I29.4 

August  .  .  . 

30.365 

74-3 

69.1 

3-9 

4.6 

75-6 

61.3 

132.8 

September 

30.30 

75 

70 

3 

4 

78 

62 

135 

In  the  interior  of  the  country  the  readings  are 
very  much  lower  in  every  particular,  except,  per- 
haps, in  the  amount  of  the  cloud.  The  land  be- 
ing elevated  3,000  or  4,000  feet  above  the  sea,  so 
far  tempers  the  climate  that,  although  within 
the  tropics,  the  heat  is  not  much  greater  than  in 
countries  in  the  lower  temperate  zones;  and  al- 
though ice  and  snow  are  never  seen,  and  hoar- 
frost only  occasionally,  yet  the  climate  in  the 
winter  months  may  be  said  to  be  cold.  The  dry 
and  cold  season  commences  generally  in  April, 
and  continues  till  the  middle  or  end  of  November. 
During  this  time  very  little  rain  falls,  but  the  air 
nearly  every  morning  is  charged  with  a  thick, 
penetrating  mist.  However,  occasionally  in  July 
and  August  the  prevailing  southeast  wind  sud- 


434  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

denly  changes  to  a  westerly  wind,  which  blows 
up  a  dense  blue  mist,  hot  and  stifling,  enervating 
and  unhealthy.  This  is  usually  followed  by  a 
thunderstorm,  when  the  wind  reverts  to  its  old 
quarter,  the  southeast,  piercing  and  damp. 

Hailstorms  of  considerable  violence  occur, 
doing  great  damage  to  the  growing  crops;  and 
occasionally  the  hailstones  are  so  large  as  to  be 
positively  dangerous  to  life.  Sometimes  the 
rainy  season  is  ushered  in  by  a  high  wind,  accom- 
panied by  a  hailstorm,  not  unfrequently  complete- 
ly destroying  the  rice  and  sugar-cane  in  the  dis- 
trict in  which  it  occurs. 

The  wet  season  is  heralded  by  one  or  two 
months'  dry  mist  in  the  afternoons,  entirely  ob- 
scuring the  distant  hills  and  completely  chan- 
ging the  usual  character  of  the  atmosphere,  which 
is  generally  so  transparent  that  hills  and  trees  at 
great  distances  can  be  seen  with  the  greatest  dis- 
tinctness. "This  is  the  time  of  year  when  the 
air  contains  the  least  amount  of  moisture.  At 
this  period  the  ground  becomes  parched,  the  grass 
is  scorched  up,  and  almost  everything,  except 
shrubs  and  trees  with  deep  roots,  withers  and  dies. 
Sickness  also  is  prevalent,  and  chest  complaints 
often  abound."  About  six  weeks  before  the 
rainy  season  really  sets  in  there  occurs  frequent- 
ly a  week  of  rains,  which  the  natives  call  the 


METEOROLOGY.  435 

"  leader  of  the  rains,"  or  "the  former  rain,"  after 
which  the  weather  remains  calm  and  dry  until 
the  rainy  season  commences. 

The  months  from  November  to  April  are  looked 
npon  as  the  rainy  season,  during  which  time, 
after  a  morning  bright  and  hot,  but  saturated 
with  moisture,  the  clouds  very  suddenly  collect 
about  two  o'clock,  and  the  rain  commences  at 
half-past,  or  three,  continuing  far  into  the  night. 
But  although  in  the  centre  of  an  island,  nearly 
the  whole  of  which  is  within  the  tropics,  it  is  a 
fallacy  to  suppose  that  the  rains  are  very  great  in 
aggregate  quantity.  It  certainly  rains  occasion- 
ally very  much  harder  than  is  usual  in  temperate 
climates;  but  the  total  rainfall  is  not  so  great  as  is 
registered  in  some  parts  of  England.  The  average 
number  of  days  on  which  any  rain  falls  appears 
to  be  between  100  and  no  days,  and  the  amount 
precipitated  to  average  50  or  52  inches;  while  in 
some  western  parts  of  England,  among  the  hills, 
the  annual  rainfall  amounts  to  80  or  100  inches. 
The  difference  between  the  high  register  of  rain 
on  the  coast,  94  or  95  inches,  and  the  small 
amount  on  the  table-land,  is  accounted  for  by  the 
fact  that  the  clouds  and  moisture,  being  driven 
up  from  the  sea,  become  condensed  in  passing 
over  the  forest  belt  on  the  slopes  of  the  plateau, 
and  are  precipitated  before  reaching  the  treeless 


436  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE). 

plains  of  the  interior.  The  rainfall  is  distributed 
through  the  year  as  follows: 


Date. 

Number  of 
d&ys  011  wliich 
rain  fell. 

Amount  of 
Rainfall. 

October,  1882  

4 

1.72  inches 

7.60 

15 

7.09 

3° 

16.86 

tt 

16 

7.12 

March  "  

*9 

9.04 

<( 

April  "  

4 

.88 

«( 

May  "  

4 

i-59 

«« 

June  "   

1 

•33 

<< 

July  u  

5 

.21 

u 

1 

.07 

<< 

Totals  

1 10 

52.51  " 

During  the  rainy  season  waterspouts  are  not 
uncommon  in  and  around  Imerina;  and  in  the 
capital  one  or  two  of  the  cannon  in  the  battery 
at  Andohalo  are  kept  loaded  in  order  to  break  any 
waterspout  suddenly  rising  from  the  vast  expanse 
of  water  in  the  river,  lakes,  and  rice-plains  in 
the  valley  below  the  city,  by  the  concussion  in 
the  air  caused  by  the  discharge.  It  is  no  uncom- 
mon thing  for  whirlwinds  and  waterspouts  to 
pass  over  a  village,  completely  destroying  it  and 
seriously  injuring  the  inhabitants. 

Fortunately,  hurricanes  are  not  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  Madagascar.  I  have  experienced 
but  one  during  sixteen  years'  residence.  When 
they  do  occur  they  take  the  character  of  the  cy- 


METEOROLOGY. 


437 


clones  so  dreaded  in  trie  neighborhood  of  Mauri- 
tius, travelling  in  a  certain  direction,  but  having 
a  rapid  circular  motion  at  the  same  time.  Houses, 
chapels,  trees,  growing  crops,  are  all  swept  clean 
from  the  course  of  these  storms,  and  much  loss  of 
life  from  exposure,  as  well  as  from  falling  houses, 
is  the  result.  But  every  rainy  season  we  are  sub- 
ject to  terribly  fierce  winds,  preceding  the  vio- 
lent thunderstorms,  accompanied  by  hail  or  rain. 
"These  heavy  blasts  of  wind  are  never  of  long 
duration,  seldom  lasting  longer  than  ten  minutes; 
but  while  they  continue  they  seem  as  if  they 
would  carry  everything  before  them.  Occasion- 
ally they  disperse  the  threatened  rain  altogether; 
but  often  they  are  accompanied  and  followed  by 
a  heavy  downpour,  deluging  the  town  with  water, 
wThile  there  is  scarcely  a  house  whose  roof  does 
not  leak  more  or  less.  It  is  a  grand  sight  to  watch 
the  approach  of  these  storms.  In  front  of  them 
there  is  a  long  horizontal  roll  of  dark  cloud,  fol- 
lowed by  a  smooth,  bluish-black  background. 
The  lightning  darts  about  wTith  dazzling  bright- 
ness, followed  by  long  peals  of  rolling  and  crack- 
ling thunder.  As  the  storm  advances  the  long 
roll  of  cloud  changes  its  shape,  while  tattered 
shreds  are  torn  away  and  scattered  abroad  in  fleecy 
fragments.  It  advances  with  steady  and  rapid 
speed,  and  as  it  reaches  the  town,  lays  hold  of 


438  MADAGASCAR  AND  FRANCE. 

the  thatch  of  the  houses,  lifts  it  up  or  tears  it  off, 
threatening  destruction  to  everything  in  its  way, 
while  the  heavy  roll  of  the  thunder  is  deadened  by 
the  fierce  blasts  of  the  wind  and  the  roar  of  the 
rain  like  the  '  noise  of  rushing  waters. '  While  it 
lasts  it  is  fearful;  fortunately,  a  few  minutes  suf- 
fice, and  as  a  rule  it  is  confined  to  a  very  small 
area,  passing  over  one  end  of  the  town,  and  proba- 
bly leaving  the  other  end  entirely  untouched." 
These  sudden  and  local  storms  are  most  probably 
caused  by  the  rapid  cooling  of  the  air  after  a  hot 
morning,  by  the  sudden  fall  of  rain  or  hail ;  and 
as  it  cools  it  rushes  forward  towards  the  warmer 
and  lighter  air  beyond  at  a  fearful  rate,  carrying 
destruction  with  it. 

Notwithstanding  the  volcanic  structure  of  the 
island,  it  is  not  subject  to  many  or  violent  earth- 
quakes. I  have  felt  but  two  or  three  very  faint 
shocks — almost  too  faint  to  be  perceptible.  Last 
year  a  more  severe  shock  than  usual  shook  the 
capital,  and  strangely  enough  occurred  at  2  a.  m. 
on  the  morning  of  the  queen's  death,  July  13, 
1883,  thus  helping  to  confirm  the  old  superstitious 
belief  of  the  people  that  some  extraordinary 
phenomenon  is  sure  to  occur  before  the  death  of 
the  sovereign. 


DT469.M26S5 

Madagascar  and  France;  with  some  account 


Princeton  Theological  Seminary-Speer  Library 


1  1012  00149  1317 


